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GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



LATIN LANGUAGE; 



FOR THE 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



E. A. ANDREWS 



S. STODDARD. 



Seconti JStiition. 



BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED BY CROCKER AND BREWSTER, 

47 Washington Street. 
NEW YORK.— LEAVITT, LORD, AND CO., 

180 Broadway. 

1836. 



^h 



o^'^ 

A^U 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1836, 
By Crocker and Brewster, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



STEREOTYPED AT THE 
K)STON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDEY. 



■■^S^^igo! '■ 



'■ s 



PREFACE 



The Grammar here presented to the public originated in a~ 
design, formed several years since, of preparing a new edition 
of Adam's Latin Grammar, with such additions and corrections 
as the existing state of classical learning plainly demanded. 
We had not proceeded far in the execution of this purpose, 
before we were impressed with the conviction, which our subse- 
quent researches continually confirmed, that the defects in that 
manual were so numerous, and of so fundamental a character, 
that they could not be removed without a radical change in the 
plan of the work. 

Since the first publication of that Grammar, rapid advances 
have been made in the science of philology, both in Great 
Britain and upon the continent of Europe. In the mean time, 
no corresponding change has been made in that work, and, 
after the lapse of half a century, it still continues, in its origi- 
nal form, to occupy its place in most of the public and private 
schools in this country. For this continuance of public favor 
it has been indebted, partly to a greater fulness of detail than 
was found in the small grammars which it has superseded, partly 
to the reluctance so commonly felt to lay aside a manual with 
which all are familiar ; but, principally, to the acknowledged 
fact, that the grammars which have been proposed as substitutes, 
not excepting even those translated from the German, though 
often replete with philosophical views of the highest interest, 
have still been destitute of many of the essential requisites of a 
complete introduction to the Latin language. 

Instead, therefore, of prosecuting our original purpose, we at 
length determined to mould our materials into a form cor re- 



nr PREFACE. 

spending with the advanced state of Latin and Greek philology. 
With this view, we have devoted much time to a careful exami^ 
nation of such works as promised to afford us the most material 
assistance. From every source, to which we could gain access, 
we have drawn whatever principles appeared to us most impor- 
tant. These v/e have sometimes expressed in the words of the 
author from whom they were derived ; but, in general, we have 
preferred to exhibit them in our own language. The whole, 
with the exception of three or four pages only, has been sent to 
the compositor in manuscript. 

The limits of a preface will allow us to notice but a few of 
the more prominent peculiarities of the following work. 

To insure a correct and uniform pronunciation of the Latin 
language, our experience had satisfied us, that rules more copi- 
ous and exact than any now in use were greatly needed. In 
presenting the rules of orthoepy contained in this Grammar, it 
is not our object to introduce innovation, but to produce uni- 
formity. This we have endeavored to effect by exhibiting, in as 
clear a light as possible, the principles of pronunciation adopted 
in the schools and universities of England, and in the principal 
colleges of this country. If these rules are regarded, the stu- 
dent can seldom be at a loss respecting the pronunciation of any 
Latin word. 

As an incorrect pronunciation may generally be referred to 
the errors into which the student is permitted to fall while learn- 
ing the paradigms of the grammar, we have endeavored to pre- 
vent the possibility of mistake in these, by dividing the words 
according to their pronunciation, and marking the accented 
syllable. If the instructor will see that the words are at first 
pronounced as they are set down in the paradigms, he will not 
afterwards be compelled to submit to the mortifying labor of 
correcting bad habits, when they have become nearly inveterate. 
Wherever a Latin word is introduced, its quantity is carefully 
marked, except in those cases in which it may be determined 
by the general rules in the thirteenth section. As the para- 
dio-ms are divided and accented, it may not, in general, be expe- 



PREFACE. V 

dient for the student to learn the rules of pronunciation at his 
entrance upon the study of the Grammar. It will be sufficient 
for him, at first, to understand the principles of accentuation in 
the fourteenth and fifteenth sections. The remaining rules he 
can gradually acquire as he proceeds in his study of the lan- 
guage. 

The materials for the subsequent departments of the Gram- 
mar have been drawn from various sources, most of which need 
not be particularly specified. It is proper, however, that, in this 
place, we should, once for all, acknowledge our obligations to 
the Grammars of Scheller, Zumpt, and Grant, and to the Dic- 
tionaries of Gesner and Facciolatus. 

The paradigms of Adam's Grammar, as being generally known, 
have been retained, excepting a few, which were liable to valid 
objections. Pcnna was rejected, because, in the sense assigned 
to it of a pen, it is totally destitute of classical authority. In- 
stead of this, innsa, which is found in the older grammars, has 
been restored. In the third declension, several additional exam- 
ples have been introduced. 

Under adjectives, the different kinds of comparison, and the 
mode of forming each, have been explained. The terminations 
of the comparative and superlative are referred, like every other 
species of inflection, to the root of the word. 

In treating of the pronouns, we have aimed so to arrange the 
several classes, as to exhibit their peculiar characteristics in a 
clear and intelligible manner. 

The compounds of suyn are given in connection with that 
verb. In the second conjugation, moneo has been substituted 
for doceo, as the latter is irregular in its third root. In the 
third conjugation, also, 7^cgo has been taken instead of lego, as 
the latter is irregular in its second root, and, from its peculiar 
signification, cannot properly be used in the first and second 
persons of the passive voice. 

In every conjugation except the first, the active and passive 
voices have been so arranged as to show the relation of their 
corresponding tenses. 

A* 



VI PREFACE* 

The derivation of the several parts of the verb from the root 
is exhibited in a peculiar manner, and such as we have found 
in practice to render the varieties of termination, both in regu- 
lar and irregular verbs, peculiarly easy to be retained in memory. 
Every part of the verb is shown to be naturally derived, either 
immediately or mediately, from its primary root. The mode of 
forming the secondary roots, and the terminations to be added 
to them and to the primary root respectively, in order to form 
the various tenses, are fully exhibited. 

In each conjugation, those verbs whose second and third roots 
are either irregular or wanting, are arranged alphabetically, in 
order to render a reference to them as easy as possible. 

In constructing the tables of verbs, and occasionally in other 
parts of etymology, w^e have derived essential aid from Hickie's 
Grammar, and we trust that the information resulting from his 
researches, in relation to the parts of verbs in actual use, will 
be esteemed not only curious but important. To a considerable 
extent, we have verified his statements by our own investiga- 
tions ; in consequence of which, however, some changes have 
been made in the parts of certain verbs as exhibited by him. 

The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly 
from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences ; 
and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly 
familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate, and 
should be able readily to analyze sentences, w^hether simple 
or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. 
For this purpose, it is generally expedient to begin with simple 
English sentences, and to proceed gradually to such as are more 
complex. When in some degree familiar with these, he will be 
able to enter upon the analysis of Latin sentences. This 
exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary 
labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, 
independently of previous analysis, the principal advantage to be 
derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, 
will inevitably be lost. The practice which we would respectfully 
recommend is that which we have presented at the close of 



PREFACE. Vn 

Syntax under the head ''Analysis." When language is studied 
in this way, it ceases to be a tiresome and mechanical employ- 
ment, and not only affords one of the most perfect exercises of 
the intellectual faculties, but, in a short time, becomes a most 
agreeable recreation. 

In the syntax of this Grammar, it is hoped that nothing essen- 
tial which is contained in larger grammars, has been omitted. 
Our object has been in this, as in other parts of the work, to 
unite the comprehensive views and philosophical arrangement of 
the German philologists with the fulness and minuteness of the 
English grammarians. In no German grammar that we have 
seen, is the language well adapted to the capacity of the younger 
classes of students, or such as to be conveniently quoted in the 
recitation-room. These defects we have endeavored to remedy, 
by expressing the rules of syntax in as simple and precise 
language as possible. In the arrangement of the syntax, we 
have followed the order of the various cases and moods, so that 
whatever relates to each subject will be found under its appro- 
priate head, and the connection of different subjects is pointed 
out by references from one part to another. In the distribution 
of the subordinate parts, we have endeavored to exhibit in the 
clearest manner their mutual relation and dependence. 

The sections relating to the use of moods have received par- 
ticular attention, as it is in this part, perhaps, more than in any 
other, that the common grammars are deficient. Upon this 
subject, in addition to the sources before enumerated, we have 
derived important aid from Carson's treatise on the relative, and 
from Crombie's Gymnasium. 

The foundation of the prosody which is here presented, is to 
be found in the more extended treatises of Carey and Grant, and 
in that contained in Rees's Cyclopaedia. From various other 
sources, also, occasional assistance has been derived ; but in 
this, as in every other part of the Grammar, we have given 
to the materials such a form as seemed best adapted to our 
purpose. 

Extended discussions of grammatical principles we have 



Vlll PREFACE. 

every where omitted, as foreign to the design of our work, but 
have endeavored to present the results of such discussions in 
the manner most likely to serve the practical purposes of the 
student. 

A prominent object in the composition of this Grammar, and 
one which we have endeavored to keep constantly before our 
minds, w^as the introduction of greater precision in rules and 
definitions, than is usually to be found in works of this kind. 
To this feature of our work we would respectfully invite the 
reader's attention. It will be found, if we mistake not, that, in 
the language of many of the grammars in common use, there 
is such inaccuracy, as well as indefiniteness, that many parts, if 
taken independently of examples, and of the explanations of 
the teacher, would be wholly unintelligible. This is especially 
the case in the rules of syntax. Take, for example, the com- 
mon rule, ^' A verb agrees with its nominative in number and 
person." Whether the nominative intended is that which, in 
construction, precedes, or that which follows, the verb, or, 
in other words, whether it is the subject-nominative, or the 
predicate-nominative, is left undetermined. 

So in the rule, ^^ One substantive governs another signifying 
a different thing in the genitive," there is no intimation that the 
two substantives have any relation Vv^hatever to each other ; it is 
not even required that they shall stand in the same proposition. 
The only condition is, that they shall signify different things. 
Any one substantive, therefore, governs any other substantive 
in the genitive, whenever and however used, and, in its turn, is 
governed in like manner by that other, provided they signify 
different things. 

In like manner the rule, *' One verb governs another in the 
infinitive," contains no limitation or restriction of any kind. 
The least that the student can be expected to infer from it 
is, that any verb may, in certain circumstances, govern an 
infinitive ; and this inference we know has actually been made 
by some respectable teachers. One who has formed such a 
conclusion may well be surprised to find that the number of 



PREFACE. IX 

verbs followed by the infinitive without a subject-accusative, is 
very small, and that no inconsiderable portion of the verbs of 
the language cannot, under any circumstances whatever, govern 
an infinitive, either with or without such accusative. 

Rules of this kind appear to have been intended not to lead 
the student to a knowledge of the structure of the language, 
but to be repeated by him after the construction has been fully 
explained by his teacher. Of themselves, therefore, they may 
be said to teach nothing. Similar remarks might be made 
respecting a very large proportion of the common rules of 
syntax, as will be obvious to any one who will take the trouble 
of subjecting them to a rigid scrutiny. As the object of syntax 
is to exhibit the relations of words and propositions, no rule 
can be considered as otherwise than imperfect, which leaves the 
nature and even the existence of those relations wholly inde- 
terminate. An active verb, for example, may, in general, be 
followed by at least three different cases, in order to express 
what are sometimes called its immediate and its remote objects, 
and also some attendant circumstance of time, place, instru- 
ment, &LC. To say, then, that *^ A verb signifying actively 
governs the accusative," can give no precise information, unless 
we specify which of its relations is denoted by this case. 

The fault to which we have now alluded, seems, in many 
cases, to have arisen from an excessive desire of brevity, and 
to have been perpetuated by the aversion so commonly felt to 
change a form of phraseology to which, however defective in 
its original, custom has at length attached a definite meaning. 
In cases of this kind, we have not scrupled to make such 
changes, both in rules and definitions, as the nature of the case 
seemed to us to demand ; but, in doing this, we have not for- 
gotten the importance of uniting brevity with precision. 

In regard to the manner in which this work was composed, 
we would merely remark, that the labor has been in every re- 
spect a mutual one. The hand and mind of each have been 
repeatedly employed upon every part, until it has at length 
become impossible even for ourselves to recollect the share 



X PREFACE. 

which each has had in bringing the work to its present state. 
Of each and every part, therefore, it may be safely said that 
we are the joint authors ; and hence, whatever of praise or 
blame may attach to any part, must be shared equally by each. 
In commending to the patronage of the public a work on 
which so large a portion of our thoughts has been for several 
years employed, we will not pretend indifference to its fate. It 
was begun under a conviction, derived from the experience of 
many years in teaching the ancient languages, that a Latin 
grammar, different in many respects from any with which we 
were acquainted, was greatly needed in our schools and colleges. 
Had we contemplated the amount of labor which its execution 
would impose upon us, we might probably have shrunk from 
the attempt, encumbered as we were with other employments. 
At every step, however, our labor has been cheered by the 
greater familiarity which we have acquired with the best of the 
Roman writers, and by the hope that the result might be of 
service to others in forming an acquaintance with the same 
immortal authors. Should the verdict of an enlightened public 
decide, that, in this respect, we have been successful, we shall 
feel ourselves fully recompensed for our labor, in the satisfac- 
tion of having contributed, in however humble a degree, to 
promote the cause of classical literature, and consequently of 
sound learning, among our countrymen. 

Boston^ April 8, 1836> 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Division of letters 2 

Diphthongs 2 

Punctuation 2 

ORTHOEPY. 

Sounds of the letters 3 

of the vowels 3 

of the diphthongs 4 

of the consonants 5 

Quantity of penultimate and final 

syllables 6 

Accentuation 7 

Division of words into syllables . . 8 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Nouns 10 

Gender 11 

Number 14 

Cases 14 

Declensions 14 

First declension 16 

Greek nouns 17 

Second declension 18 

Greek nouns 21 

Third declension 21 

Rules for the gender 24 

oblique cases. 27 

Greek nouns 36 

Fourth declension 37 

Fifth declension 38 

Declension of compound nouns 39 

Irregular nouns 39 

Variable nouns 40 

Defective nouns 41 

Redundant nouns 47 

Derivation of nouns 49 

Composition of nouns 53 

Adjectives 54 

Adjectives of the first and sec- 
ond declension 55 

Adjectives of the third declen- 
sion 57 

Rules for the oblique cases. 60 

Irregular adjectives 61 

Defective adjectives 61 

Redundant adjectives 62 

Numeral adjectives 63 

Comparison of adjectives .... 67 



Page. 

Irregular comparison 69 

Defective comparison 70 

Derivation of adjectives 72 

Composition of adjectives .... 74 

Pronouns 75 

Substantive pronouns 76 

Adjective pronouns 77 

Demonstrative pronouns ... 77 

Intensive pronouns 79 

Relative pronouns 79 

Interrogative pronouns .... 80 

Indefinite pronouns 82 

Possessive pronouns 83 

Patrial pronouns 83 

Verbs 83 

Moods 85 

Tenses 85 

Numbers 87 

Persons 87 

Participles, gerunds, and su- 
pines 88 

Conjugation » 89 

Table of terminations 91 

Sum 93 

First conjugation 96 

Second conjugation 102 

Third conjugation 105 

Fourth conjugation Ill 

Deponent verbs 114 

Remarks on the conjugations 116 
Periphrastic conjugations ... 117 
General rules of conjugation 119 
Formation of second and third 

roots 120 

First conjugation 120 

Second conjugation 124 

Third conjugation 126 

Fourth conjugation 133 

Irregular verbs 135 

Defective verbs 139 

Impersonal verbs 141 

Redundant verbs 143 

Derivation of verbs 146 

Composition of verbs 147 

Adverbs 149 

Derivation of adverbs 151 

Composition of adverbs 153 

Comparison of adverbs 154 

Prepositions 154 

Prepositions in composition . 155 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Conjunctions 157 

Interjections 159 

SYNTAX. 

Subject.... 160 

Predicate 162 

Sentences 163 

Apposition 164 

Adjectives 166 

Relatives 169 

Demonstratives J &c 172 

Reflexives 175 

^ Nominative 176 

Subject-nominative and verb 176 

Predicate -nominative 181 

Genitive 182 

Genitive after nouns 182 

after partitives. . . . 186 

after adjectives ... 188 

after verbs 190 

of place 194 

after particles 195 

Dative 195 

Dative after adjectives 195 

after verbs 197 

— after particles 201 

Accusative. 202 

Accusative after verbs 202 

after prepositions 207 

— of time and space 208 

of place 209 

after adverbs and 

interjections 209 

Subject-accusative 210 

Vocative 210 

Ablative 211 

Ablative after prepositions . . 211 

after certain nouns, 

adjectives, and verbs 212 

of cause, &c 213 

of price 217 

of time 217 

of place 218 

— after comparatives . 219 

absolute 222 

Connection of tenses. . ....... 223 

Indicative mood 225 

Subjunctive mood 226 

Protasis and apodosis 228 

Subjunctive after particles. . 229 

after qui 232 

— in indirect ques- 
tions 235 

in intermediate 



clauses 235 



Pa^e 

Imperative mood 237 

Infinitive mood 237 

Participles 243 

Gerunds and gerundives 245 

Supines 247 

Adverbs .\ . . 249 

Conjunctions 250 

Arrangement 251 

Arrangement of words 251 

of clauses 254 

Analysis. 254 

PROSODY. 

Quantity 259 

General rules 259 

Special rules 262 

First and middle syllables . 262 

Derivative words 262 

Compound words 263 

Increment of nouns .... 265 

Increment of verbs 268 

Penultimate and antepe- 
nultimate syllables . . . 270 

Final syllables 275 

Versification 279 

Feet 279 

Metre 280 

Verses 281 

Figures of prosody 282 

Arsis and thesis 284 

Csesura 285 

Different kinds of metre 286 

Dactylic metre 286 

Anapgestic metre 288 

Iambic metre 289 

Trochaic metre 290 

Choriambic metre 291 

Ionic metre 292 

Compound metres 293 

Combination of verses . , 293 

Horatian metres . , 294 

Key to the odes of Horace . . 296 

APPENDIX. 

Grammatical figares 298 

Tropes and figures of rhetoric . 301 

Roman mode of reckoning time 304 



-money 



306 



Abbreviations 307 

Different ages of Roman litera- 
ture.... 308 

Writers of the different ages . . 308 

INDEX 311 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



«§»1. Latin Grammar teaches the principles of the 
Latin Language. 

These relate, 

1. To its written characters; 

2. To its pronunciation ; 

3. To the classification and derivation of its words ; 

4. To the construction of its sentences ; 

5. To the quantity of its syllables, and its versification. 

The first part is called Orthography ; the second, Orthoepy ; 
the third, Etymology; the fourth, Syntax; and the fifth. Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

^ 2. Orthography treats of the letters, and other char- 
acters of a language, and the proper mode of spelling 
words. 

The letters of the Latin language are twenty-four. They 
have the same names as the corresponding characters in Eng- 
lish. They are A, a; B, b ; C, c; D, d; E, e; F, f; G, g; 
H, h; I, i; J, j ; L, 1; M, m ; N, n ; O, o; P, p; a, q; R, r; 
S,s; T,t; U, u ; V, v ; X,x; Y, y; Z, z. 

land j were anciently but one character, as were likewise u and v. 

Wis not found in Latin words, and the same is true of A;, except at the 
beginning of a few words whose second lettei: is a; and, even in these, 
most writers make use of c. 

Y and z are found only in words derived from the Greek. 

Hf though called a letter, only denotes a breathing, or aspiration. 



The consonants are 
divided into 



»IP tlTHONG S, PUNCTUATION. 

DIVISION OF LETTEHa 
<§. 3» Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

The vowels are , . , , a, e, i, o, u, 7/, . . 6 

'Liquids, I, m, 7i, r, . , . . ^ 4 

r Labials,, . . p, b,f,v,^ 

Mutes, < Palatics, . . c, ^, §r, J, v . . , . 10 
' Linguals, , . t^d, J 

Hissing letter, .... 5, 1 

Double letters, .... a:, z, 2 

Aspirate, A, , . 1 

24 

J!' is equivalent to cs or ^5; z to ^5 or ds ; and, except in 
compound words, the double letter is always written, instead 
of the letters which it represents. 

Diphthongs. 
<§> 4. Tw^o vowels, in immediate succession, in the same 
syllable, are called a diphthong. 

The diphthongs are ae, ai^ au, ei, cw, oc, 01, ua, m€, ui, uo, 
uUy and yi. Ae and oe are frequently written together, cb, ce. 

PUNCTUATION. 

^ 0» The only mark of punctuation us^ed by the ancients was a point, 
which denoted pauses of different length, according as it was placed at the 
top, the middle, or the bottom of the line. The moderns use the same 
marks, in writing and printing Latin, as in their own languages, and as- 
sign to them the same power. 

The following marks, also, are sometimes found in Latin 
authors, especially in elementary works : — 

w - - The first denotes that the vowel over which it stands 
is short ; the second, that it is long ; the third, that it is 
doubtful. 

^ This is called the circumflex accent. It denotes a con- 
traction, and the vowel over which it stands is always long. 

^ This is the grave accent, and is sometimes written over 
particles, to distinguish them from other words containing the 
same letters ; as, quod, because ; quod, which. 

•• The diaeresis denotes that the vowel over which it stands 
does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel; as, aer, 
the air. 



ORTHOEPY. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 



ORTHOEPY. 

^ 6. Orthoepy treats of the right pronunciation of words 

The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language being in a 
great measure lost, the learned, in modern times, have applied to 
it those principles which regulate the pronunciation of their own 
languages ; and hence has arisen, in different countries, a great 
diversity of practice. 

In the following rules for dividing and pronouncing the words 
of the Latin language, we hav^e endeavored to conform to Eng- 
lish analogy, and to the settled principles of Latin accent. The 
basis of this system is that which is exhibited by Walker in his 
** Pronunciation of Greek ^nd Latin Proper Naraes.^' To pro- 
nounce correctly, according to this method, a knowledge of the 
following particulars is requisite : — 

L Of the sounds of the tetters in all their combinations. 

2. Of the quantities of the penultimate and final syllables. 

3. Of the place of the accent^ both primary and secondary. 

4. Of the mode of dividing words into syllables, 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

L Of the Vowf.t 5. 

^7. 1. An accented vowel, at the end of a syllable, 
has always its long English sound ; as, 

pa'-ter, de'-dit, vi'-vus, to'-tus, tu'-ba, Ty'-rus ; in which the 
accented vowels are pronounced as in fatal^ metre^ vital, 
total, tutor, tyrant. 

jE, 0, and u^ at the end of an unaccented syllable, have 
nearly the same sound as when accented, but shorter and 
more obscure ; as, rt'-te^ vo'-lo, ac'-u-o. 

A, at the end of an unaccented syllable, has the sound 
of a in father, or in ah ; as, mu'-sa, e-pis'-to-la ; pronounced 
mu'-soh, &c. 

J, at the end of a word, has always its long sound. 

So also in the first syllable of a word, the second of which is 
accented, when either the i stands alone before a consonant, or 
ends the syllable before a vowel; as, i-do'-ne-us, fi-eZ-^ham, 
dt^ur'-nus. 



4 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 

In Other cases, at the end of an unaccented syllable not final, 
it has an obscure sound, like short e ; as, Fa'-hi-us, phi-los'-d- 
phus ; pronounced Fa'-he-us^ &/C. 

Remark 1. The final i of tib'-i and sib'-i also sounds like short e. 
2. Y is always pronounced like i in the same situation. 

<5>8. 2. When a syllable ends with a consonant, its 
vowel has the short English sound ; as, 

mag'-nuSj reg'-num, Jin'-go, hoc, fus'-tis, cyg'-nus, in which 
the vowels are pronounced as in magnet, seldom, finish, copy, 
lustre, symbol. 

Exception 1. A, when it follows qn in an accented syllable, 
before dr and rt, has the same sound as in quadrant smd quart; 
as, qua'-dro, quad'-ra-gin'-ta, quar'-tus. 

Exc. 2. Es, at the end of a word, is pronounced like the 
English word ease ; as, ig'-nes, au'-des, 

Exc. 3. Os, at the end of plural cases, is pronounced like ost 
in dose; as, nos^ il'-los, dom'-i-nos. 

Exc. 4. Post is pronounced like the same word in English ; 
so also are its compounds ; as, post'-quam, post'-e-a ; but not its 
derivatives ; as, pos-tre-mus. 



II. Of the Diphthongs. 

^ 9. Ae and oe are pronounced as e would be in the same 
situation ; as, ce'-tas, ces'-tas, ccBt'-e-ra, poe'-na, ces'-trum, 

Ai, ei, oi, and yi, usually have the vowels pronounced sepa- 
rately. When they are accented, and followed by another vowel, 
the i is pronounced like initial y, and the vowel before it has 
its long sound ; as, Maia, Pompeius, Troius, Harpyia ; pro- 
nounced Ma'-ya, Pom-pe'-yus, Tro'-yus, Har-py'-ya, 

Ei, when a diphthong, and not followed by another vowel, is pronounced 
like long i ; as in hei. 

Au, when a diphthong, is pronounced like aw ; as, laus, au'- 
rum, pronounced laws, &c. 

In the termination of Greek proper names, the letters au are 
pronounced separately ; as, Men-e-ld'-us. 

Eu, when a diphthong, is pronounced like long u ; as, heu, 
Or'-pheus. 

Ua, ue, ui, uo, uu, when diphthongs, are pronounced like wa, 
we, &c. ; as, lin'-gua, que'-ror, sua'-de-o, quo'-tus, e'-quus. They 



SOUNDS OF Tin: €f>N SONANTS. O 

are always diplithongs after q^ acid usually after g and 5. In 
su'-uSy ar'-gU'Oy and some other words, they are not diphthongs. 
Ui in cui and huic is pronounced like long ?, 

III. Of the Consonants. 

<§) 10. The consonants have, in general, the same power 
in Latin as in English words. 

The following cases, however, require particular attention. 

c. 

C has the sound of s before e, i, and y, and the diphthongs 
<E and (B ; as, ce'-do, Cce'-sar^ Cy'-rus. In other situations, it 
has the sound of k ; as, Ca'-to^ lac. 

Ch has always the sound of k ; as, charta, machma, pro- 
nounced kar'-ta, mak'-i-na. 

Exc. C, following or ending an accented syllable, before j 
followed by a vowel, and also before eu, has the sound of sh; 
as, socio, caduceus, pronounced so'-she-a, ca-du'-she-us. 

G. 

G has its soft sound, like j, before e, i, and y, and the diph- 
thongs oi and (£ ; as, ge'-nuSy re-gi'-na. In other situations, it 
has its hard sound, as in hag, go, 

Exc. When gy in an accented syllable, comes before g soft, it coalesces 
with it in sound; as, agger, exaggero, pronounced aj'-eVy &c. 

s. 

<§) !!• *S' has its hissing sound, as in so, thus. 

Exc. 1. Sy following or ending an accented syllable^ before 
i followed by a vowel, and before u ending a syllable, has the 
sound of sh; as, Persia, censui, pronounced Per -sAc-a, cen'-shuA. 
But, in such case, s, if preceded by a vowel, has the sound ofzh; 
as, Aspasia, Mcesia, posui, pronounced As-pa'-zhe-a, M(£.^-zhe-<if 
pozh'-u-i. 

Note. In compound words, whose second part begins with su^ s retains 
its hissing sound ) as, in'-su-per. 

Exc. 2. S, at the end of a word, after e, cb, au, b, m, n, and r, 
has the sound of z ; as, res, ces, laus, trabs, M-ems, lens, Mars. 

English analogy has also occasioned the 5 in CcB'-sar, ccB-su^-ra, mV-seTj 
mu'-sa, re-sidJ'U'um, cau'-sa, ro'-sa, and their derivatives, and in some 
other words, to take the sound of z. C(Bs-a-rt' -a, and the oblique cases of 
Casar^ retain the hissing sound. 



6 QUANTITIES OF PENULTIMATE AND FINAL SYLLABLES, 

T. 

«§> 12. y, following or ending an accented syllable, before i 
ibllowed by a vowel, has the sound of sJi ; as, ratio ^ Sulpitius, 
pronounced ra'-she-o, Sul-pish'-e-us, But in such case, t, if 
preceded by 5 or x, has the sound of cA in child; as, mixtio, 
Sallustius, pronounced mix'-che-o, Sal-lus'-che-us. 

Exc. Proper names in tion, and old infinitives in er, preserve the hard 
sound of i/ as, Am-phic^'ty-onyjlec'-ti-er for Jiecti. 

X. 

Jl, at the beginning of a syllable, has the sound of z ; at the 
end, that of ks ; as JCenophon, axis, pronounced Zen'-o-phoriy 
aJc'-sis. 

Exc. 1. In words beginning with ex, followed by a vowel in 
an accented syllable, x has the sound of ^:2;; as, examino, exem- 
plumy pronounced eg-zam'-i-no, eg-zem'-plum. 

Exc. 2. Jl, ending an accented syllable, before i followed by 
a vowel, and before u ending a syllable, has the power of ksh 
as, noxius, pexui, pronounced nok'-she-us, pek'-shu-i. 

Remark. Ch smd pk, before ih, in the beginning of a word, are silent 
as Chthonia, P hthia^jpr onounced Tho'-ni-a^ Tki'-a. Also in the following 
combinations of consonants, in the beginning of words of Greek origin 
the first letter is not sounded : — mne-mon'-i-caj g7ia'-vus, tme'-sis, Cte'-si 
aSf Ptol-e-mcB'-us, psaU-lo. 



OF THE QUANTITIES OF THE PENULTIMATE AND 
FINAL SYLLABLES. 

<5> 13. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

A short syllable requires, in pronunciation, half the time of a 
long one. 

The penultimate syllable, ot peiiult, is the last syllable but one. 
The antepenult is the last syllable but two. 

The quantities of syllables are, in genera], to be learned from 
the *' Rules of Prosody ; ^' but the following very general rules 
may be here inserted : — 

A vowel before another vowel is short. 
Diphthongs, not beginning with u, are long. 
A vowel before x, z,j, or any two consonants, except a mute 
and liquid, is long, by position, as it is called. 



ACCENTUATIOK, 7 

A vowel before a mute aiid a liquid is common, L e. either 
5ong or short. 

In this Grammar, when the quantity of a penult is determined by one 
of the preceding rules, it is not marked ; in other cases, except in dis- 
syllables, the proper mark is written over its vowel. 

To pronounce Latin words correctly, it is necessary to ascertain the 
quantities of their last two syllables only ; and the rules for the quantities 
of final syllables would be unnecessary, but for the occasional addition of 
enclitics. As these are generally monosyllables, and, for the purpose of 
accentuation, are considered as parts of the words to which they are an- 
nexed, they cause the final syllable of the original word to become the 
penult of the compound. But as the enclitics begin with a consonant, 
the final vowels of all words ending with a consonant, if previously short, 
are, by the addition of an enclitic, made long by position. It is necessary, 
therefore, to learn the quantities of those final syllables only which end 
with a vowel. 



OF ACCENTUATION. 

<5> 14. Accent is a particular stress of voice upon certain 
syllables of v^^ords. 

When a word has more than one accent, that which is near- 
est to the termination is called the primary or principal accent. 

The secondary accent is that which next precedes the 
primary. 

A third and a fourth accent, in some long words, precede 
the secondary, and are subject, in all respects, to the same 
rules. 

In words of two syllables, the penult is always accented ; 
a-s, pa^'ter, ma^-ter^ peW-na. 

In words of more than two syllables, if the penult is long^ 
it is accented ; but if it is shorty the accent is on the ante- 
penult ; as, a-mi^'CuSy dom^-i-nus. 

Exc. The penult of vocatives, from proper names in ius, is 
accented, even when it is short ; as, Vir-gil'-i, 

<§> 15. If the penult is common, the accent, in prose, is upon 
the antepenult ; as, vol'-u-cris, phar'-e-tra, ib'-i-que : but geni- 
tives in ius, in which i is common, accent their penult in prose ; 
as, u-ni'-us, is-ti'-us. 

The rules for the accentuation of compound and simple words 
are the same ; as, se'-cum, suh'^e-o. 

In accentuation, the enclitics que, ne, ve, and also those 
which are annexed to pronouns,* are accounted constituent 

* These are te^ metj pte, ce, cine, and dem; as, tute, egomet, meapte, hicce, 
kiccine, idem. 



8 DmslOS QrY WORDS. SIMPLE WORDS; 

parts of the words to which they are subjoined ; as, i^-ta, if^ 
que; vi'-rum, vi'Tum'-que. 

if only two syllables precede the primary accent, the secon- 
dary accent is on the first ; as, mod'-e-rd'-tus, toV'-e-rab'-i-lis, 

<§) 16« If three or four syllables stand before the primary 
accent, the secondary accent is placed, sometimes on the first,, 
and sometimes on the second syllable ; as, de'inon"'Stra'ban''tury 
ad"'0^es^cen'-ti'a. 

Some words which have only four syllables before the pri- 
mary accent, and all which hare more than four, have three 
accents ; as, 7nod"''e'ra"-ti-d'-^iis, tol"-e'ra-bil'-i'd'-rem,. ex-er'"^ 
ci'4a"'ti'd'-nis. In some combinations there are four accents ;- 
as, eX'er"'''ci-taf'''ti-on'-i'bus''quc. 

RULES FOR THE DIVISIOX OF WORDS INTO 
SYLLABLES. 

^ l7« The only purpose of the following rules- for the division of 
words, is, to lead to a correct pronunciation. 

When liquids are mentioned. I and r only are intended. 

Words of one syllable are called mono=syUahles-; of two, dissyllables ; and 
of more than tyro, polysyllables. 

I. Simple Words, 
I. In every word there are as many syllables as there are 
separate vowels and diphthongs. A word, therefore, will be 
divided correctly, when its consonants are united with the 
proper vowels and diphthongs. 

<§^ 18. 2, A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid^ coming 
between the vowels of the penultimate and final syllables, must 
be joined to the latter ; as, pa-ter^ a'-cris^ vol-ii-criSj Hi-er'' 
6'cles. 

Tib'-i and sib'-i are excepted. 

3. Any two consonants, except a route and a liquid, coming 
between the penultimate and final syllables, are separated ; as, 
cor' -pus J il'-hj ad'O-les'^cens, 

<5> 19. 4. A single consonant, either before or after the 
vowel of any accented syllable, except after the vowel of a pe- 
nult, is joined to the accented syllable ; as, i-tin'-e-ra, dom-i-nus. 

5. A mute and a liquid, coming before the vowel of an ac- 
cented syllable, are joined to such vowel ; as, a-gres'-tis^ la-trd'' 
tor, Eu-phrd'-nor, Her-a-de'-a. 

Exc. to rules 2 and 5. Gl and tl, either afler the vowel of the penult, 



DIVISION OF WORDS. COMPOUND WORDS. 9 

or before the vowel of an accented syllable, are separated ; as, ^g'-Uy 
At' 'las ; Jig'W'US^ M-Um'-tl-des. 

^ 20. 6. Any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid, 
coming before the vowel of an accented syllable, and any two 
consonants whatever, coming after such vowel, unless it is the 
vowel of the penult (2), are separated; as, ger-md'-nus, for- 
mi'-do, ca-ter'-va^ co-lum'-ha, refAu-o, 

Exc. to rules 4 and 6. (a.) A single consonant, or a mute and 
a liquid, following a, 6, or o, in an accented syllable, and fol- 
lowed by two vowels^ of which the first is e or z, must be joined 
to the latter ; as, ra'-di-us^fal-ci-o^ me'-di-us, do'-ce-o, tcB'^-di-uniy 
hcB'-re-o^ Mod'si-a^ Sue'-vi-a, pa'-tri-us, E-re'-tri-a, CE-no'-tri-a, 

Exc. (6.) A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid, after 
Uy in an accented syllable, must be joined to the vowel which 
follows ; as, lu'-ri-dus, au'-re-us^ Eu'-ry-tus, sa-lu'-hri-tas, Eu- 
cri-tus^ 

Exc. (c.) If the second of two consonants coming after the vowel of an 
ttccented syllable is t or d, they are often united, as in English, when 
followed by u, ending a syllable not final ; as, mortuus, ardwuSy pro- 
nounced mort'-yU'USy ard'-yu-us, 

<§> 2 1 . 7. If three consonants come between the vowels of 
any two syllables, the last two, if a mute and a liquid, are joined 
to the latter syllable ; otherwise, the last only ; as, pis-tri'-na^ 
fe-nes'-tra, emp-to'-ris, Lamp'-sorcus, 

8. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid, coming be- 
tween the vowels of two unaccented syllables, must be joined to 
the latter ; as, tol'-e-ra-bil'-i-us , aW-O'les-cen'-ti-a, per'^-e-gri-- 
na"-ti'd''nis, 

9. When x, with no other consonant, comes between two vowels, in 
writing syllables, it is united to the former; but in j»ro7^0M7^c^^^^ them, it is 
divided ; as, sax'-uniy ax-il'-la, pronounced sac'-sum, ac-siV-la. 

^ ZZ* 10. When h alone comes between two vowels, it is joined to 
the latter ; but if it follows c, p, or f, it is never separated from them, and 
is not considered as a letter ; as, mi'-hiy tr a' -he-re, mach'-l-nay Pa'-phos. 
A'-thos, 

11. Four consonants rarely meet in words uncompounded, as in trans'- 
trum. In such case, two of them are a mute and a liquid, and these are 
joined to the latter syllable. 

2. Compound Words, 

^ 23. 12. A compound word is resolved into its constituent 
parts, if the former part ends with a consonant ; but if that ends 
with a vowel, the compound is divided like a simple word ; as, 
ab-es'-sCy irt'-ers, cir-cum'-d-go, su'-per-esty sub'-i-it^ pr^B^ter'-e-a; 
— def-e-'rOf dil'-i-gOy be-nev'-o-lus^ pr^Bs'-to, 



10' ETYMOLOGY. — NOFNSv 



ETYMOLOGY- 

<§ 24. Etymology treats of the different classes of 
words, their derivation, and various inflections. 

The different classes, into which words are divided, are- 
called Par^5 of Speech. 

The parts of speech in Latin are eight- — Substantive or 
Noun, Adjtctive, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,. 
Conjunction, and Interjection, 

The first four are inflected ; the last four are not inflected, 
except that some adverbs change their termination to express 
comparison. 

Substantives and adjectives are often included by grammarians under 
the general term nouns ; but, in this Grammar, the word noun is used aa 
synonymous with substantive only , 

<§> 25. To verbs belong Participles, Gerunds, hnd Supines, 
which partake of the meaning of the verb, and the inflection 
of the noun. 

Inflection, in Latin grammar, signifies a change in the ter- 
mination of a word. It is of three kinds — declension, conjuga- 
tion,, and comparison. 

Nouns, adjectives, participles^ gerunds, and supines, are de^ 
clined ; verbs are conjugated, and adjectives and adverbs are 
compared.. 

NOUNS. 

§ 26. A substantive or noun is the name of an object. 

Nouns are either proper, common, or abstract. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as,, 
CcBsar ; Roma, Rome ; Tiberis, the Tiber. 

A common noun denotes a class of objects, to any one 
of which it is equally applicable ; as, homo, a man ; avis, a 
bird; quercus, an ook; lapis, a stone. 

A common noun, when, in the singular number, it sig- 
nifies many, is called a collective noun ; os^popiilus, a peo- 
plie ; exercUuSy an army. 



GENDEH. U 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, or of a mode 
<oi being or action ; as, bonitasj goodness; gaudium, '^oy :^ 
festinatio, haste. 

Abstract nouns, by varying their meaning, may become common. 
Thus, studium, zeal, a^tate of the mind, is an abstract ; when it signifies 
a pursuit, it is a common noun. Proper nouns also may be used to desig- 
nate a class, and then they become common ; as, dttodecim Ccesdres, the 
twelve Ceesars. The infinitive mood is often substituted for an abstract 
noun. 

To nouns belong gender, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

<§> 27. Nouns have three genders — masculine, femininty 
and neuter. 

The gender of Latin nouns is either natwral ©r grammaticah 

Those words are naturally masculine or feminine, which are 
used to designate the sexes. 

Those are grammatically masculine or feminine, which, 
though they denote objects that are neither male nor female, 
take adjectives of the form appropriated to nouns denoting the 
sexes : thus, dormnus, a lord, is naturally masculine, because it 
denotes a male; but sermo, speech, is grammatically mascu- 
line, because it takes an adjective of that form which is an- 
nexed to nouns denoting males. 

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns depends either on 
their signification, or on their declension and termination. 
The following are the general rules of gender, in reference to 
signification. Many exceptions to them, on account of termi- 
nation, occur : these will be specified under the several de- 
clensions. . 

<5> 28. Masculines. 1. Names and appellations of all 
male beings are masculine ; as, Homerus, Homer ; pater, a 
father; consul, r consul; equus, ahorse. 

As proper names usually follow the gender of the general 
name under which they are comprehended ; hence, 

2. Names of rivers, winds, and months, are masculine, 
because fluvius, ventus, and mensis, are masculine ; as, 7Y- 
beris, the Tiber ; Aqutlo, the north wind ; Aprilis, April. 

3. Names of mountains are sometimes masculine, because 
mans is masculine ; as, Othrys, a mountain of Thessaly ; but 



12 



COMMON AND DOrBTFUI. GENDER. 



they usually follow the gender of their termmation ; as, hic^ 
Atlas, hcec Ida, hoc Soractc. 

<§> 29. Feminines, 1. Names and appellations of all 
female beings are feminine ; as, Helena, Helen ; mater ^ a 
mother ; juvenca, a heifer. 

2. Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, ships, islands, 
poems, and gems, are feminine ; because terra, urhs, arbor ^ 
planta, navis, fabula, and gemma, are feminine ; as, 

jTjgypfus, Egypt ; Corinthus, Corinth ; piruSy a pear-tree ; 
nardus, spikenard ; Centaurus, the ship Centaur ', Samos, the 
name of an island; Eunuchus, the Eunuch, a comedy of 
Terence; amethystus, an amethyst. 

<^ 30. Common and Doubtful Gender. Some words are 
either masculine or feminine. These, if they denote things 
animate, are said to be of the common gender ; if things inani- 
mate, of the doubtful gender. 

Of the former are parens, a parent ; bos, an ox or cow : of 
the latter, j^m's, an end. 

The following nouns are of the common gender : — 



Adolescens, a youth. 
AfFlnis, a relation by 

marriage. 
Antistes, a chief priest. 
Auctor, an author. 
Augur, an augur. 
Bos, an ox or cow. 
Canis, a dog. 
Civis, a citizen. 
Comes, a companion. 
Conjux, a spouse. 
Consors, a consort. 
Convlva, a guest. 
Gustos, a keeper. 



Dux, a leader. 
Exul, an exile. 
Hospes, fl guest, a host. 
Hostis, an enemy. 
Infans, an infant. 
Interpres, an interpreter. 
Judex, a judge. 
Juvenis, a youth. 
Miles, a soldier. 
Municeps, a burgess. 
Nemo, nobody. 
Par, a peer. 

Patruelis, a cousin-ger- 
man. 



Parens, a parent. 
Praes, a surety. 
PraBses, a president. 
Praesul, a chief priest. 
Princeps, a prince or 

princess. 
Sacerdos, a priest or 

priestess. 
Satelles, a life-guard. 
Sus, a swine. 
Testis, a witness. 
Vales, a prophet. 
Verna, a slave. 
Vindex, an avenger. 



The following hexameters contain nearly all the above nouns : — 
Conjux, atque parens, princeps, patruelis, et infans, 
Affinis, vindex, judex, dux, miles, et hostts, 
Augur, ei antistes, juvenis, convlva, sacerdos, 
Muni-que-ceps, vates, adolescens, civis, et auctor, 
Custos, nemo, comes, testis, sus, bos-que, canis-que, 
Pro consorte toii par, prcesul, verna, satelles. 
Frees jungas, consors, interpres, et exul, et hospes. 



* To distinguish the ffender of Latin nouns, grammarians write hie before tfa^ 
masculine; hcec before the feminine, and hoc before the neuter. 



EPICENES, NEUTKRS. 13 

^31. When liouiis of the common gender denote tnale>, 
they take a masculine adjective ; when they denote females, a 
feminine. 

The following are either masculine or feminine in sense, but 
masculine only in grammatical construction : — 

Artifex, an artist. Fur, a thief. Obses, a hostage. 

Auspex, a soothsayer. Heres, an heir. Oipifex, a wojkman. 

Codes, a person having Homo, a man or woman. Pedes, a footman. 

but one eye. Index, an informer. Pugil, a boxer. 

Eques, a horseman. Latro, a robber. Senex, an old person. 

Exlex, an outlaw. Liberi, children. 

To these may be added personal appellatives of the first de- 
clension ; as, advena, a stranger ; auriga, a charioteer ; incola, 
an inhabitant : also some gentile nouns ; as, Persa, a Persian ; 
Arcas^ an Arcadian. 

<§) 32. The following, though masculine or feminine in 
sense, are feminine only in construction :— 

Copiae, troops. Operae, laborers. Vigiliae, watchmen. 

Custodias, guards. Proles, ) oWsvring: 

'Etxcnhi^ J sentinels. Soboles, J ^ 

Some nouns, signifying persons, are neuter, both in their 
termination and construction ; as, 

Acroama, a jester. Mancipium, "> , 

Auxilia, auxiliary troops. Servitium, ) 

<§) 33, Epicenes. Names of animals which include both 
sexes, but which admit of an adjective of one gender only, are 
called epicene. Such nouns commonly follow the gender of 
their terminations. Thus, passer, a sparrow, mus, a mouse, are 
masculine ; aquila, an eagle, vulpes, a fox, are feminine ; 
though each of them is used to denote both sexes. 

This class includes the names of animals, in vt^hich the distinction of 
sex is seldom attended to. When it is necessary to mark the sex, mas 
orfemina is usually added. 

<§) 34. Neuters. Nouns which are neither masculine 
nor feminine, are said to be of the neuter gender ; such 
are, 

1. All indeclinable nouns; hs, fas, nefas, nihil, gummi, 
pondo. 

2. Names of letters; as, ^, B, C, 6lc. 

3. Words used merely as such, without reference to their 
meaning ; as, pater est dissyJlabum ; pater is a dissyllable. 

4. All infinitives, imperatives, clauses of sentences, adverbs, 

2 



il NUMBEK. CASES. DECLENSIONS. 

and other particles, used substantively ; as, sch^e tuunij your 
knowledge ; ultimum vale, the last farewell. 

Remark. Words derived from the Greek retain the same gender 
which thej have in that language. 

NUMBER. 

<§> 35. Latin nouns have two numbers, — the singular and 
the plural^ — which are distinguished by their terminations. 

The singular number denotes one object; the plural, 
more than one. 

CASES. 

<§) 36. Many of the relations of objects, which, in English, 
are denoted by prepositions, are, in Latin, expressed by a 
change of termination. 

Cases are those terminations of nouns, by means of 
which their relations to other words are denoted. Latin 
nouns have six cases ; viz. Nominative^ Genitive, Dative, 
Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

But though there is this number of cases, no noun has so 
many different terminations in each number. 

*§> 37. The nominative indicates the relation of a subject 
to a finite verb. 

The genitive is used to indicate origin, possession, and many 
Other relations, which, in English, are denoted by the preposi- 
tion of. 

The dative denotes that to or for W'hich any thing is, or is 
done. 

The accusative is either the object of an active verb, or of 
certain prepositions, or the subject of an infinitive. 

The vocative is the form appropriated to the name of any 
object which is addressed. 

The ablative denotes privation, and many other relations, 
especially those which are usually expressed in English by the 
prepositions with, from, in, or by. 

All the cases, except the nominative, are usually called ob- 
lique cases. 

DECLENSIONS. 

<5> 38. The change of termination, by which the different 
cases and numbers of nouns are expressed, is called declension 



DECLENSIONS. TERMINATIONS. 



15 



There are, in Latin, five different modes of declining 
nouns, called the^r^^, second^ thirds fourth^ and fifth de- 
clensions. These may be distinguished by the termination 
of the genitive singular, which, in the first declension, ends 
in ^, in the second in ?*, in the third in is^ in the fourth in 
us, and in the fifth in ei*. 

<§) 39. The foUowing table exhibits a comparative view of 
the five declensions. 





L 


Nom. 
Gen, 
BaU 




Ace, 
Voc. 
Ahl 


am, 

K 

a, 



Terminations, 




Singular, 






IL 


III. 






M, N. 


M, 


N, 


M 


us,er, ura. 


— 


— 


us, 


i, 


i«. 




us, 


o, 


i. 




ui. 


urn, 


em, 


— 


um, 


e, er, um, 


— 


— ' 


us, 


o. 


e, or 1 







IV. 



N. 



u, 


es, 


u, 


ei, 


", 


ei. 


u, 


em 


u. 


es, 




e* 



Plural 



Nom, 
Gen, 
Bat, 
Ace, 
Voe. 
AbL 



se, 
arum, 
is, 
as., 
ae, 
is. 



1, a, 


es, a, la, 


us, ua, 


es. 


orum, 
is, 


um, or umij 
ibus. 


uum, 
ibus, or iibus, 


erum, 
ebus, 


OS, a, 


es, a, ia, 


us, ua. 


es. 


1, a, 
is. 


es, a, ia, 
ibus. 


us, ua, 
ibus, or ubus. 


es, 
ebus. 



RemarT<:s, 

<§> 40. 1. The terminations of the nominative, in the third declen- 
sion, are very numerous, and are therefore omitted in the table. 

2- The accusative singular ends always in w, except in some 
neuters. 

3. The vocative singular is like the nominative in all Latin 
nouns, except those in us of the second declension. 

4. The nominative and vocative plural end always alike. 

5. The genitive plural ends always in um, 

6- The dative and ablative plural end always alike ; — in the 
1st and 2d declensions, in is; in the 3d, 4th, and 5th, in bus. 



16 



FIRST DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 



7. The accusative plural ends always in s, except in 
neuters. 

8. Nouns of the neuter gender have the accusative and 
vocative like the nominative, in both numbers ; and these 
cases, in the plural, end alv^ays in a. 

9. The 1st and 5th declensions contain no nouns of the neuter gender, 
and the 4th and 5th contain no proper names. 

10. Every inflected word consists of two parts — a roo^, and 
a termination. The root is the part which is not changed by 
inflection. The termination is the part annexed to the root. 
The preceding table exhibits terminations only. In the fifth 
declension, the e of the final syllable, though unchanged, is 
considered as belonging to the termination. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 

<§> 41. Nouns of the first declension end in a, e^ as, or 
es. Those in a and e are feminine ; those in as and 
es are masculine. 



Latin nouns of this declension end 
declined : — 

Singular. 

Nom. Mu^-sa, amuse; \ Y v\ 

Gen. mu^-sae, of a muse ; Gen. 

Dat. mu^-sse, to a muse; Dat. 

Ace. mu^-sam, a muse ; Ace. 

Voc. mu^-sa, O muse ; Voc. 

Abl. mu'-sa, with a muse. Ahl. 



only in a, and are thus 



Plural. 

mu-sse, 

mu-sa'-rum^ 

mu'-sis, 

mu'-sas, 

mu'-sae, 

mu'-sis, 



muses ; 
of muses ; 
to muses ; 

muses ; 

O muses ; 

until muses. 



In like manner decline 
Au'-la, a hall. Lus-cin^-i-a, a nightin- 



Cu'-ra, care. 
Ga'-le-a, a helmet. 
In'-su-la, an island. 
Lit'-e-ra, a letter. 



gale. 

Mach'-i-na, a machine. 
Pen'-na. a quill ^ a wing. 



Sa-git'-ta, an arrow. 
SteF-ia, a star. 
To'-ga, a gown. 
Vi'-a, a way. 



Exceptions in Gender. 

<§) 42. 1. Appellatives of men, and names of rivers in a, are 
masculine, according to § 28, 1 and 2. But the poets have used 
the following names of rivers as feminine : Alhulay A Ilia, Dru^ 
entia, Garumna, Matrona, Mosella. Names of rivers in e are 
also feminine : as, Lethe. 



FIRST ir:'JLh>N.-Mv;N. — <,k«':*:s. NOi .vs. t I 

Ossa and (Eta^ mines of nhoii:it:il:is, are inasculiii3 or lei'ii- 
hiine. 

2. Hadria, the Adriatic sea, is luasCLdine. Dama, a fallow 
deer, and talpa^ a mole, are once used as masculine by Virgil. 

Exceptions Iin Declension. 

*§>43. Genitive singular, 1. The poets sometimes formed 
the genitive singular in di ; as, aula^ a hall ; gen. aulai, 

2. JTamilia, after pater ^ mater, jilius, or Jilia, usually forms 
its genitive in as ; as, maler-familias , the mistress of a family ; 
gen. 7natris'familias; nom. p]ur, matres-famili as or familidrum. 
Some other words anciently formed their genitive in the same 
manner. 

Genitive plural. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted 
by omitting ar; as, Coelicdlum, for Coelicoldrum. 

Dative and Ablative plural. The following nouns have 
generally dbus in the dative and ablative plural, to distinguish 
them from the same cases of masculines in us of the second 
declension : — 

Dea, a goddess. Equa, a mare, 

Filia. a daughter. Mula, a she mule. 

The use of a similar termination in anima, astna, domina, liberta, naia^ 
S:srv(i, consertaj and soda, rests on inferior authority. 

Greek Nouns. 

*^ 44. Nouns of the first declension in c, as, and es, and 
some also in a, are Greek. Greek nouns in a are declined like 
musa, except that they sometimes have an in the accusative 
singular; as, Ossa; ace, Ossam, or Ossan, 

Greek nouns in e, as, and es, are thus declined in the singu- 
lar number : — 

JV. Pe-nel'-6-pe, JV*. iE-ne'-as, JV. An-chl'-ses, 

G. Pe-neP-6-pes, G. ^-ne'-sB, G. An-chi'-s8B, 

D. Pe-neF-6-pae, D, M-ne'-sd, D. An-chl^-saB, 

^c. Pe-neP-6-pen, ^c, jE-ne'-am, or an, Ac. An-chl'-sen, 

r. Pe-nel'-6-pe, V. iE-ne'-a, V. An-chl'-se, 

M.Ve-neV'O'pe. Ab,M-ne'-k, .46. An-chl'-se. 

^ 45. In like manner decline 

AP-o-e, aloes. Ti-a'-ras, a turban. 

E-pit'-6-me, an abridgment, Co-me'-tes, a comet. 

This'-be. Dy-nas'-tes, a dynasty. 

Bo'-re-as, the north wind. Pri-am'-i-des, a son of Priain. 

Mi'-das. Ty-iV-tes, a kind of stone. 

Patronymics in des have sometimes em for en in the accusative ; as, 
Priamidem. 

2* 



18 SECOND DECLENSION. 

Greek nouns which admit of a plural, are declined in that number like 
the plural of musa. 

The Latins frequently change the terminations of Greek nouns in es 
and c into a ; as, j9trides, Atrida, a son of Atreus ; Perses, Persa, a 
Persian ; gcometres^ geometra, a geometrician ; Circe, Circa ; epitorp.ej 
epitoma ; grammatice, gramniatlca, grammar; rhctoricc, rhiiorica, ora- 
tory. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 

^ 46. Nouns of the second declension end in er, ir^ 
us, um, OS, on. Those ending in um. and on are neuter ; the 
rest are masculine. 

Nouns in er, us, and um, are thus declined : — 

Singular. 





A lord. 


A son4n-laio. 


Afield. 


A kingdom. 


N. 


Dom^-i-nus, 


Ge-ner, 


A'-ger, 


Reg'-num, 


G, 


dom^-i-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-ni, 


D, 


dom'-i-no, 


gen^-e-ro, 


a'-gro, 


reg'-no, 


Ac. 


dom'-i-nurn, 


gen'-e-rum, 


a'-grum, 


reg-num, 


V, 


dom'-i-ne, 


ge^-ner, 


a'-ger, 


reg'-num, 


Ah. 


dom'-i-no. 


gen^-e-ro. 

Plural. 


a'-gro. 


reg'-no. 


N. 


dom'-i-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


G. 


dom-i-no'-rum, 


gen-e-ro'-rum, 


a-gro'-rum, 


reg-no'-rum, 


D. 


dom'-i-nis, 


gen'-e-ris, 


a'-gris, 


reg'-nis, 


Ac. 


dom'-i-nos, 


gen'-e-ros, 


a^-gros, 


reg'-na, 


V. 


dom'-i-ni, 


gen'-e-ri, 


a'-gri, 


reg'-na, 


Ah. 


dom'-i-nis. 


gen^-e-ris. 


a'-gris. 


reg'-nis. 



Like dormnus decline 

An'-i-mus, the mind. Fo'-cus, a hearth. Nu'-mg rus, a number. 

Clyp'-e-us, a shield, Gla'-di-us, a, sward. O-ce'-a-nus, the ocean. 

Cor'-vus, a raven. Lu'-cus, a grove, Tro'-chus, a top. 

<§) 47. Some nouns in er, like gener, add the terminations 
to the nominative singular, as a root. They are the compounds 
o^ gero w^id. fero ; 3,Sy armiger,'eri, an armor-bearer; Lucifer, 
-eri, the morning star ; and the following : — 

A-duF-ter, eri; a?i a^^ttZ- V-hex^^ri, a Spaniard. So'-cer, ^xi, a father-in- 

terer. Li'-ber, eri, Bacchus. law. 

Cel'-ti-ber, eri, a Celti- Pu'-er, erij a boy. Ves'-per, ^ri, the even- 

berian. ing. 

MulcXber, Vulcan, sometimes has this form. 



^KCO.N'i) OKCILKNSION. — -EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 19 

^ 48. All other nouns in er reject the e^ in adding the 
terminations, and are declined like agcr ; thus, 

A'-per, a loild boar. Li'-ber, a hook. Al-ex-an'-der. 

Aus'-ter, /Ac soulh wind. Ma-gis^-ter, « masifr. Teu'-cer. 

Fa'-ber, a workman. On'-a-ger, a wild ass. 

Vir, a man, and its compounds, (the only nouns in ir,) are 
declined like gener. 

Like regnum decline 
An'-trunij a cave. Ne-go'-ti-um,* a btisi- Prae-sid'-i-um, a defence, 

A'-tri-um, a hall. ness. Sax'-um, a rock. 

Bel^-lum, war. Ni'-trum, nitre. Scep'-trum, a sceptre. 

Ex-em'-plum,an example. 



Exceptions in Gender.* 
<§) 49. 1. The following nouns in us are feminine : — 

Abyssus, a bottomless Carbasus, a sail. Miltus, vermilion. 

pit. Dialectus, a dialect. Pharus, a watch-tower. 

Alvus, the belly. Domus, a house. Plinthus, the foot of a 

Antidotus, an antidote. Eremus, a desert. pillar. 

Arctus, the Northern Humus, the ground. Vaiinus, a sieve. 

Bear. Lecythus, a cruise. 

2. Greek nouns in phthongus, odus, and metros, are likewise 
feminine ; as, diphthongus, a diphthong; synodus, an assembly ; 
diametros, a diameter. 

<§) 50. 3. Names of countries, towns, trees, plants, &c. are 
feminine, according to § 29, 2» 

Yet the following names of plants are masculine : — 

Acanthus, hear s-f cot. Dumus, a thicket. Raphanus, a radish. 

Asparagus, asparagus. Helleborus, ^cZ/ciore. Rhamn us, ftZacA;-iAoni. 

Calamus, a reed. Intybus, endive. Rubus, a bramble. 

Carduus, a, thistle. J uncus, a bulrush. Tribulus, a thistle. 

And sometimes 

AmarScus, marjoram. Cytisus, hadder. 

Cupressus, cypress. Lotos, a lote-tree. 

Names of trees in aster are also masculine; as, oleaster, a 
wild olive. 

The following names of gems are also masculine: — 

Beryllus, a beryl. ChrysoprSsus, chryso- Pyropus, pyrope. 

Carbunculus, a carbun- prase. Smaragdus, an emerald. 

cle. OpSilus, opal. 

(^^hrysolithus, chryso- 
lite. 

* Pronounced ne-go^-she-um. See § 12. 



20 SECOND DECLENSION. EXCEPTIONS. 

Names of trees and plants in um are generally neuter. 

These names of countries and towns are masculine : Canopus, 
Pontus, and all plurals in i, Ahydus and Lesbos are either 
masculine or feminine. Ilion is either neuter or feminine. 

Names of towns ending in um, or, if plural, in a, are neuter, 

<§)51. 4. The following are doubtful, but more frequently 
masculine : — 

Balanus, a date. Grossus, a green jig. Phaselus, a little ship. 

Barbitus, a harp. Pampinus, a vine-leaf. 

Momus, an atom, and coluSy a distaff, are doubtful, but more frequently 
feminine. 

5. Peldgus, the sea, and virus, poison, are neuter. 
VulguSy the common people, is generally neuter, but some- 
times masculine. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

<§)52« Genitive singular. When the genitive singular ends 
in ii, the poets sometimes contract it into i ; as, ingeni, for 
ingenii. 

Vocative singular. The vocative of nouns in us is some- 
times like the nominative, especially in poetry , as, jiuvius, 
Latinus, in Virgil. So, audi tu, populus ; Li v. 

Proper names in ius omit e in the vocative ; as, IJoratius, 
Hordti; Virgilius, Virgili. 

Filius, a son, and genius, a guardian angel, make also^//" and geni. 
Other nouns in m^, including patrials and possessives derived from proper 
names, form their vocative regularly in e; as, Delius, Ddie ; Tiryntkius, 
Tirynthie; Laertius, Laertie. 

<§> 53. Genitive plural. The genitive plural of some words, 
especially of those which denote money, measure^ and weight, 
is commonly formed in um, instead of drum. 

Such are particularly nummum, sestertiitm, denarium, medirnnum, 
jugerum, modium, talentum. The same form occurs in other words, es- 
pecially in poetry ; as, dextm^ liberum, Danaum, &c. 

Deiis, a god, is thus declined :— 
Singular, Plural. 

N. De'-us, iV. Di'-i, Di, or De'-i, 

G. De'-i, G, De-o'-rum, 

D. De'-o, D, Di'-is, Dis, or De'-is, 

Ac, De'-um, Ac, De'-os, 

F. De'-us, V. Di -i, Di, or De'-i, 

Ah. De'-o. Ah. Di'-is, Dis, or De'-is. 

Jesus, the name of the Savior, has um in the accusative, and u in al! 
the other oblique cases. 



Singular. Plural. 

JV*. bar'-bi-ton, bar'-bi-ta, 

G. bar^-bi-ti, bar'-bi-ton, 

D. bar^-bi-to, bar'-bi-tis, 

c/5c. bar^-bi-ton, bar'-bi-ta, 

V. bar^-bi-ton, bar'-bi-ta, 

Ah. bar'-bi-to. bar'-bi-tis. 



third declension. 21 

Greek Nouns. 

<§> 54. Os and on, in the second declension, are Greek 
terminations, and are often changed, in Latin, into us and um; 
as, Alpheos, AlpMus ; Ilion, Iliinn. Those in ros are gen- 
erally changed into cr ; as, Alexandras, Alexander ; Teucros, 
Teucer. 

Greek nouns are thus declined : — 

Barbiton, a lyre. 
Singular. 
JV. De'-los, An-dro'-ge-os, 
G. De'-li, An-dro'-ge-o, or i, 
D. De'-lo, An-dro'-ge-o, 
Ac De'-lon, An-dro'-ge-o, or on, 
V. De'-le, An-dro'-ge-os, 
Ah, De'-lo. An-dro'-ge-o. 
Anciently, some nouns in 05 had the genitive in u ; as, Menandru. Ter. 
Greek proper names in eus are generally declined like dominus, except 
in the vocative, which ends in eu : in this case, and sometimes in the 
genitive, dative, and accusative, they retain the Greek form, and are of 
the third declension. 

Panthu occurs in Vii dl as the vocative of Panthus. 



THIRD DECT.F.NSTON- 

<^ 55. The number of final letters, in this declension, is 
eleven. Four are vowels^ — a, e, i, o ; and seven are conso- 
nants — c, I, n, r, 5, t, X. The number of its final syllables 
exceeds fifty. 

Mode of declining Nouns of the Third Declension. 
In this declension the oblique cases cannot always be determined from 
the nominative, nor, on the other hand, the nominative from the oblique 
cases. To decline a word properly, in this declension, it is necessary to 
know its gender, its nominative singular, and one of its oblique cases ; 
since the root of the cases is not always found entire and unchanged in 
the nominative. The case usually selected for this purpose is the geni- 
tive singular. The formation of the accusative singular, and of the 
nominative, accusative, an ' vocative plural, depends upon the gender : 
if it is masculine or feminine these cases have one form ; if neuter, another. 

<§ 00. The student should first fix well in his memory the terminations 
of one of these forms. He should next learn the nominative and genitive 
singular of the word which is to be declined. If is is removed from the 
genitive, the remainder will always be the root of the oblique cases, and 
by annexing their terminations to this root, the word is declined ; thus, 
rupes, genitive (found in the dictionary) rup'is, root rup, dative rupi, &c. : 
soars, gen art'is, root art, dat. a?ti, &c. ; opus, gen. operis, root oper, 
dat. operi, &c. 

Where two forms are used in the same case, recourse must be had to 
the rules f:)r t!ie <iifferent cases, § 79 — 85. 



22 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



The following are the two forms of termination in this 
declension : — 



Singular. 








Plural 


Masc. and Fern, A''eut, 




Masc 


. and Fern. 


JVeut. 


N. * 


* 




N. 


es. 


a, or ia. 


G. is, 


is, 




G. um 


, or ium. 


um, or ium, 


D. i, 


i, 




JD, 


ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac. em, or im. 


* 




Ac, 


es, 


a, or ia, 


F. * ^ 


* 




F, 


es, 


a, or ia, 


Ah. e, or i. e 


, or 


i. 


Ab. 


ibus. 


ibus. 


The asterisk stands 


for 


th( 


3 nominative, and 


for those cases 


which are like it 













^57. The foOowing are examples of the most common 
forms of nouns of this declension, declined through all their 
cases, 

Sernno, speech ; masc. 



Honor, honor ; niasc. 

Singular. PluraL 
N, ho^-nor, ho-no^-res, 
G, ho-no'-ris, ho-no'-rum, 
2>. ho-no^-ri, ho-nor'-i-bus, 

j4lc. ho-no'-rcm, ho-no'-rca, 

F. ho'-nor, ho-no^-res. 
Ah, ho-no'-re. ho-nor^-i-bus. 



Rupes, a 
Singular, 
N. ru'-pes, 
G. ru'-pis, 
D. ru-pi, 
Ac, ru^-pem, 
F. ru'-pes, 
Ah. ru^-pe. 



rock; fern. 
PluraL 
ru'-pes, 
ru'-pi-um, 
ru^-pi-bus, 
ru'-pes, 
ru'-pes, 
ru^-pi-bus. 



Ars, art ; fern. 
Singular, Plural, 



N, ars, 
G, ar'-tis, 
D, ar'-ti, 
Ac, ar^-tem, 
F. ars, 
Ah, ar'-te. 



ar'-tes, 

ar'-ti-um,* 

ar^-ti-bus, 

ar'-tes, 

ar'-tes, 

ar'-ti-bus. 



Singular, 
N, ser'-mo, 
G, ser-mo^-nis, 
D. ser-mo^-ni, 
Ac. scr-mo^-nem, 
F. ser'-mo. 
Ah. ser-mo'-ne. 



PluraL 
ser-mo'-nes, 
ser-mo^-num, 
ser-mon'-i-bus, 
ser-mo'-nes, 
ser-mo^-nes, 
ser-rnon'-i-bus. 



Turris, a tower ; fern. 



Singular, 
N, tur'-ris, 
G, tur^-ris, 
D. tur'-ri, 
Ac. tur^-rem, 
F. tur'-ris. 
Ah. tur -re, or ri. 



PluraL 
tur^-res, 
tur^-ri-um, 
tur'-ri-bus, 
tur^-res, 
tur'-res, 
tur-ri-bus. 



Nox, night ; fern. 



Singular, 
N. nox, 
G. noc'-tis, 
D. noc'-ti, 
Ac. noc'-tem, 
F. nox. 
Ah, noc'-te. 



PluraL 
noc'-tes, 
noc'-ti-um,* 
noc'-ti-bus, 
noC"tes, 
noc'-tes, 
noc^-ti-bus. 



Pronounced arf-she-um, noc'-she-um. See § 12. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



23 



Miles, a soldier; com. gen. 

Singular, Plural, 

N, niiMes, miP-i-tes, 

6r. mil'-i-tis, mil'-i-tum, 

D. mil'-i-ti, mi-lit'-i-bus, 

Ac, mil'-i-tem, miF-i-tes, 

V, mi'-les, miP-i-tes, 

Ah. mil -i-te. mi-lit^-i-bus. 

Pater, a father ; masc. 

Singular, Plural, 

N, pa'-ter, pa'-tres, 

G. pa^-tris, pa^-trum, 

D, pa'-tri, pat^-ri-bus, 

Ac. pa^-trem, pa -tres, 

V. pa^-ter, pa^-tres. 

Ah. pa'-tre. pat^-ri-bus. 

Sedile, a seat ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. se-di'-le, se-diP-i-a, 

G. se-diMis, se-diP-i-um, 

D. se-dF-li, se-dil'-i-bus, 

Ac. se-di'-Ie, se-dil'-i-a, 

V. se-dp-le, se-dil'-i-a, 

Ah. se-dF-li. se-diF-i-bus. 

Carmen, a verse ; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. car^-men, car'-mi-na, 
G. car'-mi-nis, car^-rai-num, 
D. car'-mi-ni, car-min-i-bus, 
Ac. car'-men, car'-mi-na, 
V. car-men, car^-mT-na, 
Ah. car'-mi-ne. car-min'-i-bus. 

Iter, a journey ; neut. 
Singular. Plural, 



N, i'-ter, 
G, i-tin'-e-ris, 
D, i-tin'-e-ri, 
Ac, i'-ter, 
V, i'-ter, 
Ah, i-tin'-e-re. 



i-tin^-e-ra, 

i-tin^-e-rum, 

it-i-ner^-i-bus, 

i-tin^-e-ra, 

i-tin'-e-ra, 

it-i-ner^-i-bus. 



Lapis, a stone ; fem. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. la'-pis, lap'-i-des, 

G, lap-i-dis, lap'-i-dum, 

D. lap^-i-di, la-pid'-i-bus, 

Ac. lap'-i-dem, lap^-i-des, 

V. la^-pis, lap'-i-des, 

Ah, lap'-i-de. la-pid'-i-bus. 

Virgo, a virgin ; fem. 

Singular. Plural, 

N, vir'-go, vir'-gi-nes, 

G. vir'-gT-nis, vir'-gi-num, 

D. vir'-gi-ni, vir-gin^-i-bus, 

Ac, vir'-gi-nem, vir'-gi-nes, 

F. vir^-go, vir^-gi-nes, 
Ah, vir'-gi-ne. vir-gin^-i-bus. 

Animal, an animal; neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N, an^-i-mal, an-i-ma'-li-a, 

G, an-i-maMis, an-i-ma-li-um, 
D. an-i-ma-li, an-i-maF-i-bus, 
Ac, an'-i-mal, an-i-ma^-li-a, 
V. an'-i-mal, an-i-maMi-a, 
Ah. an-i-ma^-li. an-i-maF-i-bus. 

Opus, a work; neut. 

Singular. Plural, 

N, o'-pus, op^-e-ra, 

G, op-e-ris, op'-e-rum, 

D, op^-e-ri, o-per'-i-bus, 

Ac, o^-pus, op'-e-ra, 

V, o'-pus, op-e-ra, 

Ah, op'-e-re. o-per'-i-bus. 

Caput, a head ; neut. 

Singular, Plural, 

N, ca'-put, cap'-i-ta, 

G. cap'-i-tis, cap'-i-tum, 

D, cap'-i-ti, ca-pit'-i-bus, 

Ac, ca^-put, cap'-i-ta, 

V, ca'-put, cap'-i-ta, 

Ah, cap'-i-te. ca-pit-i-bus 



24 THiRD D£CLENSION^--^GEND£It^ 

Fo'-^iuR^ a poem ; neut. 
Singular, Plural. 

N. po-e^-ma, po-em'-a-ta, 

G. po-em'-a-tis, po-em^-a-tum, 

D. po-em'-a-tij po-e-mat^-i-bus, or po-em'-a-tis, 

Ac. po-e'-ma, po-em'-a-ta, 

F. po-e'-ma, po-em^-a-ta, 

Ah, po-em^*a-te. po-e-mat^-i-bus, or po-em'-a-tis, 

^ Rules for the Gender of Nouns of the Thirds 
Declension. 

4> 58. Nouns whose gender is determined by their signi- 
fication, according to the general rules, § 28—34, are not 
included in the following rules and exceptions. 

MASCULINES. 

Nouns ending in o, er, or, es increasing in the genitive,, 
and OS, are masculine ; as, 

sermo, speech ; dolor ^^psiin ; fios^ a flow^er ; career, a prison ; 
pes J a foot. 

Exceptions in O. 

<§> 59. 1. Nouns in io are feminine, when they signify 
things incorporeal ; as, ratio, reason. 

2. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, are femi- 
nine ; as, arundo, a reed ; imago, an image. So also grando, 
hail. But comedo, a glutton ; unedo,. a kind of fruit ; and 
harpdgo, a hook, are masculine. 

Mar go, the brink of a river, is either masculine or feminine. Cupldo^ 
desire, is often masculine in poetry, but in prose is ab.vays feminine. 

3. Caro, flesh, and Greek nouns in o, are feminine ; as, echo, an 
echo. 

Exceptions in ER> 

<§> 60. 1. Tuber, the tuber-tree, is feminine; but when it denotes 
the fruit, it is masculine. Linter, a boat, is mascuhne or feminine ; siser, 
a carrot, is masculine or neuter. 

2. The following, in er, are neuter : ~ 

Acer, a maple-tree. Papaver, a poppy- Tuber, a swelling. 

Cadaver, a dead body. Piper, pepper. Uber, a teat. 

Cicer, a vetch. Siler, an osier. Ver, the spring. 

Iter, a journey. Spinther, a cZa^p. V eiher, a scourge 

Laser, benzoin. Suber, a cork-tree. Zingiber, ginger. 

Layer, water-cresses. 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. 25 

Exceptions in OR. 

^ ol« Arhor^ a tree, is feminine : ador, fine wheat ; crqii.or, the sea ; 
marmor, marble ; and cor^ the heart, are neuter. 

Exceptions in ES increasing in the genitive. 
1. The following are feminine : — 

( bmpes, a fetter. Quies, and Requies, re^t. Teges, a mat. 

JNIerces, a reicard. Inquies, want of rest. Tudes, a hammer. 

Merges, a sheaf of corn. Seges, growing corn. 

2. Ales J a bird, is masculine or feminine, ^s, brass, is neuter. 

Exceptions in OS. 

ArboSj a tree ; cos, a whetstone ; dos^ a dowry ; and eos, the morning, 
are feminine : 05, the mouth, and os, a bone, are neuter; as are also the 
Greek words chaos, chaos ; epos, epic poetry ', and melos, melody. 

FEMININES. 

•5> 62. Nounss ending in as^ es not increasing in the 
genitive, is, ys, s preceded by a consonant, and x, are 
feminine; as, 

(Etas, age ; nubes, a cloud ; acjs, a bird ; chlamys, a cloak ; 
trabs, a beam ; pax, peace. 

Exceptions in AS. 

1. As, a piece of money, or any thing divisible into twelve parts, is 
masculine. Greek nouns in as, antis, are also masculine ; as, addmas, 
adamant. 

2. Vas, a vessel, and Greek nouns in as, dtis, are neuter ; as, artocreas, 
a pie ; buceras, a species of herb. 

Exceptions in es not increasing in the genitive, 

Acindces, a cimeter, and coles, a stalk, are masculine. Palumhes, a wood 
pigeon, and vepres, a bramble, are masculine or feminine. Cacoethes, 
hippomdnes, nepenthes, and pandces, Greek words, are neuter. 

Exceptions in IS. 
<§> 63. 1. Latin nouns in nis are masculine or doubtful. 

Mctsculine, 
Crinis, hair. Ignis, fire. Panis, bread. 

Masculine or Feminine, 
Amnis, a river. Clunis. the haunch. Funis, a rope 

Cinis, ashes. Finis, an end. 

Fines (plur.), boundaries, is always masculine. 



20 



THIRD DECLENSION.— GENDER. 



2. The fbllovv'ing also are masculine or feminine : — * 

Ano'uis, a snake. Corbis, a basket. Tigris, a tiger. 

Caiialis, o conduit pipe, Pulvis, dust. Torquis, a chain* 

Cenchris, a serpent. Scrobis, a ditch. 

3. The following are masculine : — 



Ensis. a siDord. 
Fascis, a bundle. 
FolliSj a pair of bellows. 
Fustis, a club. 
Glis, a dormouse. 
Lapisy a stone. 
Mensis, a month. 
Mugilis, a mullet. 
Orbis, a circle. 
Piscis, a fish. 
Fol]is.,finejiour. 



Postis, a post. 
Sanguis, blood. 
Semissis, a half of as- 
Sentis, a brier. 
Sodalis, a companion, 
Torris, a firebrand. 
Unguis, a nail. 
Vectis, a lever. 
Vermis, a worm. 
Vomis, a. ploughshare. 



Axis, a?i axletrce. 
Aqualis, a icater-pot. 
Callis, a path. 
Cassis, a net. 
Caulis, or} ^ „ 
Colis, ^«^to»- 
Centussis, a compound 
' of as. 
Colli&, a hill. 
Cossis, a loorni. 
Cucumis, a cucuinber. 
Decussis, « compound 
of as. 

Exceptions in S preceded by a consonant. 

y o4. 1. Dens, a tooth ; fons, a fountain ;. mons, a mountain : and 
po7is. a bridge, are masculine. So also are chalybs, steel; ellops, a kind 
offish ; fpops, a la,pwing; gryps, a griffin ; hydrops, the dropsy ; merops^ 
a woodpecker ; and .?eps, a kind of serpent. 

2. Some nouns in ?*;?, originally participles, and the compounds ofdens^ 
which are properly adjectives, are masculine ; as, confluens, a confluence ; 
ocr/ide-ns, the west > oriens, the east ; profiuens, a stream ; torrens, a tor- 
rent ; bidens, a two-pronged hoe ; but bidens, a sheep, is feminine. To 
these add sextans y qiiadrans, triens, dodrans, dextans, parts of as. 

3. The following are either masculine or feminine : — - 

KdieT^s, fatness. Rudens, a cable. Serpens, a serpent. 

Forceps, pincers. Scrobs, a ditch. Stirps, thetrunk of a tree. 

.inimans, an animal, is feminine or neuter, and sometimes ma,seuline. 

Exceptions in X» 

<§>" 6o. 1. A!X. Cor ax, a raven ; cordax, a kind of dance ; dropax, an 
ointment ; styrwx, a kind of tree ; and thorax, a breastplate, are masculine ;. 
Umax, a snail, is masculine or feminine. 

2. EX. Nouns in ex are masculine, except lex, a law, nex, death, and 
supcllex, furniture, w^hich are feminine, and atriplex, golden-herb, which 
is neuter. 

Cortex, bark ; imbrex, a gutter-tile ; obex, a bolt ; rumex, sorrel ; and 
silex, a flint, are either masculine or feminine : grex, a herd, and pumex^ 
pumice-stone, are very rarely found feminine. 

3. IX. Calix, a cup ; fornix, an arch ; phoenix, a kind of bird ; and spadix^ 
a palm-branch, are masculine. 

Perdix, a partridge, and varix, a swollen vein, are masculine or feminine. 

4. OX. Box and esox^ names of marine animals, and volvox, a vine- 
fretter, are masculine. 

5. UX. Trudux, a vine-branch, is masculine. 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 2i 

6. YX. BomhyXj a silk-worm ; calyx, the bud of a flower ; coccyx, a 
cuckoo ; and oryx, a wild goat, are masculine. Onyx and sarddnyx, 
names of stones ; also, calx, the heel ; ly7ix, a lynx, and sandyx, a kind 
of color, are masculine or feminine. 

Note. Calx, lime, and hombyx, when it signifies silk, are feminine. 

7. Quincunx, septunx, decunx, deunz, parts of as, are masculine. 

NEUTERS. 

*§) 66. Nouns ending in a, 6, i, c, /, n, t^ ar^ ur^ and U3^ 
are neuter ; as, 

diadema, a crown ; ?'ete, a net ; liydromeli, mead ; lac, milk ; 
flumen, a river ; caput, the head ; calcar, a spur ; guttur, the 
throat, dLnA pectus , the breast. 

Exceptions in L. 

Mugil, a mullet, and sol^ihe sun, are masculine. Sal, salt, is masculine 
or neuter, in the singular ; but, in the plural, it signifies witticisms, 
and is always masculine. 

Exceptions in N. 

Nouns in n, except those in men, are masculine ; as, canon, 
a rule. 

But four in on are feminine — aeduji, a nightingale ; halcyon, a king- 
fisher } icon, an image ; sindon, fine linen : and four in en are neuter— 
gluten, glue ; inguen, the groin ; pollen, fine flour ; and ungucn, ointment. 

Exec pti VIS in AU and Ul^. 

*§» 6 ^ • Furfur, bran ; salar, a trout ; turtur. a turtjp dove ; and vultur, 
a vulture, are masculine. Paccar and robur, name of pi i uis. are neuter. § 29. 

Exceptions in US. 

Lepus, a hare ; mus, a mouse ; and Greek nouns inpif^ (lovc), are mas- 
culine ; as, tripus, a tripod ; but lagopus, a white partridge, is feminine. 

Nouns in us, having ixtis, or udis, m the genitive, are femi- 
nine ; s.s,juventus, youth; incus, an anvil. 

Pecus, -udis, a brute animal ; tellu^, the earth ; fraus, fraud ; and lau^, 
praise, are feminine. 

Grus, a crane, is masculine or feminine. 



Rules for the Oblique Cases of Nouns of thf 
Third Declension. 

GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

A. 

^ 68. Nouns in a form their genitive in dtis ; as, di-a-de'' 
ma, di-a-dcm'-a-tis, a (*.rown ; dog'-ma, dog'-md-tis, an opinion. 



28 THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 

E. 

Nouns in e znznge e iiuo is ; as, re'-te, re'-tis, a net ; se^JiQe, 
se-di'-liSy a seat. 

I. 

Nouns in i are of Greek origin, and are generally indeclina- 
ble ; but hy'drom'-e-liy mead, has hyd-ro-mel'-i-tis in the geni- 
tive. 

o. 

^ 69. Nouns in o form their genitive in onis ; as, set -ma, 
ser-mo'-nis, speech ; pa'-vo, pa-vo'-nis, a peacock. 

Remark. Patrials in o have onis; as, Macedo^-onis ; except Ehu ones, 
Lacones, lones^ Masamdnes, Suessones. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, 
form their genitive in mis ; as, a-run'-do,. a-run'-di-nis, a leed; 
i-md'-go, i-mag'-i-nisj an image. 

But comedo, a glutton ; unedoj a kind of fruit ; and harpdgo, a hook^ 
have onis. 

Cardo, a hinge ; ordo, order ; grando, hail } virgOj a virgin ; and margo, 
the brink of a river, also have inis in the genitive. 

Exc. 2. The following, also, have Inis: — Apollo ; homo, a man; nemo, 
nobody : and turbo, a wltirlwind. 

Caro, flesh, has, bv syncope, carnis. Anio. the name of a river, has 
Anienis; JVerio, the wife of Mars, .Vr,.",', -c; iiom the old nominatives, 
Anien, Kerien. 

Exc. 3. Some Greek nouns in o form tiieir genitive in us, and their 
other cases singular, in a; as. Dido, gen. Didus, dat. Dido, &c. ; 
Argo, -us ; but they are sometimes declined regularly ; as, Dido, Diilonis. 

c. 

<§> 70. The only nouns in c are ha'-lec, ha-W-cis, a pickle, 
and lac, lac'-tis, milk. 

L. N. R. 
Nouns in I, n, and r, form their genitive by adding 25 ; as, 
con'-sul, con'-sU'lis, a consul ; ca'-non, can'-o-nis, a rule ; ho -nor, 
ho-no'-ris, honor. 

So, An'-i-mal, an-i-ma^-lis, an animal. CaF-car, cal-ca'-ris, a spur. 
Vi^-gil, vig'-i-lis, a watchman. Car'-cer, car'-ce-ris, aprisin. 

Ti'-tan, Ti-ta'-nis, Titan. Gut'-tur, gut'-tu-ris, the thoat. 

Si'-ren, si-re'-nis, a siren. Mar'-tyr, mar'-ty=ris, a ma'-tyr. 

Dey-phin, Del-phr-nis, a dolphin. 

Exceptions in h. 

Fel, gall, and met, honey, double I before is; Bs^fellis, mellis. 



THIRD DECLKNSIOX. 



-GT/NlTlVi:. *29 



ExCfj)tlons in N. 

<§> 71. 1. Neuters in en form their genitive in inis ; as, 
fiu'-men, fla'-mi-nis, a river ; gia-ien, glu'-ti-Jiis, glue. 

The following, also, form their genitive in \nis : — oscen, a bird wliich 
foreboded by singing ; pecten, a comb ; tlbicen, a piper ; and tuhUcnj a 
trumpeter. 

2. Some Greek nouns in on form their genitive in ontis ; as, Laoinidon, 
Lacmedontis. 

Exceptions in R. 
1. Nouns in tcr drop e in the genitive ; as, pa'-ter, pa'-tris, a 
father. So also imhcTj a shower, and names of months in her ; 
as, October, Octobris. 

But crater, a cup ; sotcr. a savior ; and later, a tile, retain e in the genitive. 

2. Far, corn, has f arris ; hepar, the liver, hepatis ; iter, a journey, 
itlneris ; Jupiter, Jovis ; and cor, the heart, cordis. 

3. These four in ur have oris in the genitive : — ebur, ivory ; fermir, the 
thigh ; jecur, the liver ; rohur, strength. 

Jeciir hdis also jeclndris, Siudjocindris, 

AS. 
'^7 '2, Nouns in as form their genitive in dtis ; as, ce'-tas^ 
(E-td'-th, age ; pi'-e-tas, pi-e-td'-tis, piety. 

Exc. 1. As has ass Is ; mas, a male, maris; vas, a surety, vadis ; and 
r//6', a vessel; vasls. Anas, a duck, has andtis. ' 

Exc. 2. Greek nouns in ft^ form their genitive according to their 
gender ; the masculines in antis, the feminines in ddis or ados, and the 
neuters in dtis ; as. adamas, -antis, adamant; lampas, -ddis, a lamp ; huc^- 
ras, -dtis, a species of herb. Areas, an Arcadian, a,nd JVomas , a Numidiaa, 
which are of the common gender, form their genitive in ddis. Melas, the 
name of a river, has Meldnis. 

ES. 

<5) 73. Nouns in es form their genitive by changing es into 
is, itis, or etis; as, ru'-pes, ru'-pis, a rock; mi'-les, miV-^-tis, a 
soldier ; se'^ges, scg'-e-tis, growing corn. 

A few Greek proper names in es (gen. is) sometimes form their geni- 
tive in i, after the second declension } as, Achilles, -is, or -i. 

Those which make Uis are, 
Ales, a bird. Gurges, a whirlpool. Poples, the ham. 

Ames, a folder's staff. Hospes, a guest. Satelles, a lifeguard. 

Antistes, a priest. Ijimes, a limit. ^tii^es, the stockof atree.* 

Cespes, a turf Merges, a sheaf of corn. Termes, an olive bough. 

Comes, a companion. Miles, a soldier. Trames, a path. 

Eques, a hoiseman. Palmes, a vine-branch. Tudes, a hammer. 

Fomes, fuel. Pedes, a footman. 

The following have etis : — abies, a fir-tree ; aries, a ram ; indiges, a man 
deified ; interpres, an interpreter ; paries, a wall ; seges, growing corn ; 
and teses, a mat. 

3* 



30 



THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 



The folloAving have etis : — Cres. a Cretan : lebes, a caldron ; magnes, a 
loadstone; qiues and requies. rest; and tapes, tapestry. But requies is 
sometmies of the fifth declension. 

Some Greek proper names have either etis or is in the genitive •, aa, 
Chr ernes, -etis. or -is. Dares, -etis, or -is. 

Exc. 1. Ohses, a hostage, and prcBses, a president, have idis. 

Exc. 2. Hcres. an heir, and merces, a reward, hsi've edis ; pes, 3. &iOij 
and its compounds, have edis. 

Exc. 3. Ceres has Cereris ; bes, hessis ; and prces, a surety, j^^^^^^' 
JEs, brass, has arib. 



IS. 

<§) 74. Nouns in is have their genitive the same as tlie 
nominative ; as, au'-ris^ aii-ris, the ear : a'-vis^ a'-vis, a 
bird. 

Exc. 1. The following have the genitive in cr/'s : — cinis, ashes ; cnciimis, 
a encumber; puhis, dust; vomls, a ploughshare. 

Exc. 2. The following have idis : — capis. a cup; cassis, a helmet; 
cuspis, the point of a speai ; lapis, a stone ; Sind praiiiu:sis, metiiegiin. 

Exc. 3. Two have Inis .- — poUis, fine flour, and sanguis, blood. 

Exc. 4. Four have itis :■ -Dis, Pluto > lis, strife ; Quiris, a Pvoman ; and 
Samnis, a Samnite. 

Exc. 5. GUs, a donnouse. has gliris. 

Greek nouDs in is form their trenitire. 



1. in is, ios, or cos ; as, 
Basis, the foot of a pillar. 
Haeresis, heresy. 
Metropolis, a chief city. 
Fhrasis, a phrase. 
Phthisis, a consumption. 
Poesis, poetry. 



2. in idis, or tdos ; 
^•Egis, a shield. 
J£neis, the ^ircid. 
VspiS; an asp. 



b. m uiis ; as, 
Delphis. 
Eleusis. 
Saiamis. 



Ephemeris, a day-hook, j 

Iris, tlie rainbow. 4. mentis; as, 

Nereis, a JS'ereid. ' Simois. 

Pvra'" *s, a pyramid. j 

I Tigi ' tiger. \ 

I Tyran. >;. tyranny. I 
Tigris has sometimes the genitive like the nominative, 
Charis, one of the graces, has itis. 



OS, 

^ 75. Nouns in os form their genitive in dris or otis . 
fios^fio'-ris, a flower; ne'-pos, ne-po-tis, a grandchild. 
The folio winar have or/5 : — 



as, 



Flos, a flower. Labos, hihor. 

Glos, a husband's sister. Lepos, u i^. 

Honos, honor. Mos, a custom. 

Arhos, a tree, has oris. 
The following have otis : — 

Cos, a ichetstone. Monoceros, a unicorn. 

Dos, a dmcry. Rhinoceros, a rhinoceros. 



Os, the mouth. 
Ros, dew. 



Nepos, a grandchild 
Sacerdos, apriesi. 



THIRD DECL,ENS10N. GENITIVE, 31 

Exc. 1. Custos, a keeper, has custodis ; bos, an ox, bovis ; and os, a 
bone, ossis. 

Exc. 2. Some Greek substantives in os have ols in the genitive; as, 
kcros, a hero; Minos ; Tros, a Trojan. 

us. 

<^ 76. Nouns in us form their genitive in eris or dm ; as, 
ge'-nus, gen'-e-ris, a kind ; tem'-pus^ tem'-po^ris, time. 
Those which make oris are, 

Corpus, a body. Lepus, a hare. Pectus, the breast. 

Decus, honor. Littus, a shore. Pignus, a pledge. 

Dedecus, disgrace. Nemus, a grove, Stercus^ dung. 

Facinus, an exploit. Pecus, cattle. Tempus, time. 

Fcenus, interest. Penus, provisions. Tergus, a hide. 

Frigus, cold. 
Exc. 1. These three have udis :-^incus, an anvil; palus, a morass; 
and subscus, a dove-tail. 

Pecos, a brute animal, has pecudis. 

Exc. 2. These five have utis : — juvenilis, youth ; salus, safety ; senectus^ 
old age ; servitus, slavery ; virtus, virtue. 

Exc. 3. Monosyllables in us have uris ; as, crus, the leg; jus, right; 
mus, a mouse ; pu^, matter ; ru^, the country ; thus, frankincense ; except 
grus, a crane, and sus, a swine, which have gruis, and suis. 

Tellus, the earth, has telluris ; and Ligus or ur^ a Ligurian, has Liguris. 
Exc. 4. Fraus, fraud, and laus, praise, hsLYefraudis, laudis. 
Exc. 5. Greek nouns in pus (jtovg) have odis ; as, tripus^ tripodis, a 
tripod ; (Edjipus, -odis, which is sometimes of the second declension. 

Exc. 6. Some Greek names of cities in 2*^ have untis ; as, Trapezus, 
Trapezuntis ; Opus, -untis ; Pessinus, -untis. 

Exc. 7. Nouns ending in eus are all proper names, and have their gen- 
itive in eos; as, Orpheus, -eos. But these nouns are found also in the 
second declension; as, OrpheuSy -ei or -i. 

YS. 

<§>,77. Nouns in 1/5 are Greek, and, in the genitive, some 
have yis or yos, some ydis or ydos^ and some ynis or ynos ; as, 

che'-lys, chej-ly-is or -os, a harp ; Cd-pys, Ca'-py-is or -os, chW-mys, 
chlam'~y-dis or -dos, a cloak ; Tra'-chys, Tra-chyf-nis or -nos. 

S preceded by a consonant. 

Nouns in s, with a consonant before it, form their genitive 
by changing 5 into is or tis ; as, trahs, tra'-his, a beam ; hi'-emSy 
hi'-e-miSf winter ; pars, par' -tis, a part ; frons, fron'-tis, the 
forehead. 

Those in 6s, ms^ and ps, change s into is ; except gryps, a 
griffin, which has gryphis. 

Remark. Those in eps also change eintoi; ?ia, princepSj principisy a 
prince. But seps has sepis, and auceps, aucupis. 

Those in Is, ns, and rs, change s into tis. 



32 THIRD DECLENSION. DATITE AND ACCUSATIVE. 

Exe. 1. The following in 715 change s into dis :^ranSj a leaf; glan$ 
an acorn ; juglans, a walnut ; lenSj a nit ; and libHpens^ a weigher. 

Exc. 2. TirynSj a Greek proper name, has Tirynthis in the genitive. ^ 

T. 

^78. Nouns in f form their genitive initis. They are, 
caput, the head^ gen. cap'-t-tis ; and its compounds^ occiput 
and sinciput. 

X. 

Nouns in x form their genitive by changing x into cis or ^^5 ; 
as, voXj vo'-cis, the voice ; con'-jux, con'-ju-gis, a spouse. 

Soy foT^-nax, for-na^-cis, a fnrnace > ca^-lix, caV-i-cis, a cup ^ cer'-vix^ 
cer-W'ds^ the neck. 

Thos6 which make ^is are, conjux. a spouse ; grex^ a flock ; /ex, a law > 
remftex, -tgis, a rower ; rex, a king. 

Also the following : — 
Allobrox, -ogis, «?i.^ZZo- Dumnorix, -igis. Phalanx, 'gis,Gp/m7«7ix. 

hrogian. Elporedorix, -igis. Vhxyx, -giSr, a Phrygian. ■ 

Ambiorix, -igis. Exlex, -egis^, an outla^i:. Sphinx. -girs, a spMnx. 

Aquilex, -egis, a spring Frux, -gis. fruit. Strix, -gis, a screedt-oicl. 

hunter. lapyx, -ygis, the nortli- Styx, -gis, tlie river Styx. 

Biturix, -igis, a Bituri- west icind. Syrinx, -gis. Syrinx. 

gian. Orgetorix, -igis. Vercingetorix^ -igis. 

Coccyx, -ygis, a cuckoo. Oryx, -ygis, a wild goat. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in ex, of more than one syllable, form their 
genitive in tcis ; as, pollex, -ids, the thamb. 

Except f(BniscXj a mower } nartkex. a shrub ; resex, a vine-branch ; 
vervex^ a wether ; and aquilex and exlcx. 

Exc. 2. Supellex, furniture, has supeUecti/is ; and sencx. an old man, has 
senis. JVix^ snow, has nivis ; and tiox, night, noctis. 

Exc. 3. Some Greek proper names in ax form their genitive in actis ;^ 
as, HylaXy actis. So Astydnax, Bibrax, Demonax. 

Exc. 4. Onyx and sardonyx have ychis in the genitive } as, onyx, 
onpchis. 

DATIVE SINGULAR. 

<§> 79. The dative singular ends in i; as^ serrno, dat. sermoni. 
Anciently it also ended in e; as^ morte datus, Varr. apud 
Gell. 

ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

The accusative singular, with the exception of neuters, ends 
in em. Yet some Latin words in is, which do not increase in 
the genitive, have im, and some Greek words have im, in, or a. 

1. Many proper names in is^ denoting places, rivers, or gods, have the 
accusative singular in im ; diS, Hispdlis, Tiberis, AnUbis; so also Mbis, 
AtMsiSj BcBtis. Ardris, Bilbilis, Apis, Osiris, Syrtis, &c. These some- 
times, also, make the accusative in in ; as, Albin. 



THIRD DECLENSION. ACCUSATIVE. 33 

"2. The followinor qi^r have tne accusative in im : — 

Amussis, a masons rule. Gummis, gum. Sitis, thirst. 

Buris, a plough-tail. Mephitis, /cmZ air. Tussis, a cough. 

Cannabis, hemp. Ravis, hoarseness. Vis, strength. 

Cucumis, a cucumber. Sinapis, mustard. 

3. These have im, and sometimes em — 

Aqualis, a loater-pot. Puppis, the stern. Seciiris, an axe. 

Febris, a fever. Restis, a rope. Turris, a tower. 

But these have ew, and rarely im — 

Avis, a bird, Navis, a ship. Ratis, a raft. 

Clavis, a key. Ovis, a sheep. Sementis, a sotoing. 

Lens, a lentil. Pelvis, a basin. Sentis, a brier, 

Messis, a harvest. PraBsepis, a stall. Strigilis, a curry-comb. 

Crates y a hurdle, has aJso sometimes cratim, as if fiom gratis. 
The ancients formed the accusative of some other nouns in im. 

Accusative of Greek Nouns. 

^ 80. The accusative singular of Greek nouns sometimes 
retains the Greek terminations in and a, but often ends, as in 
Latin, in em or im, 

I. Greek nouns, whose genitive increases in is or os, impure, that is, 
with a consonant going before, have their accusative in em or a; as, 
lampas (lampddis or dos), lam^pddem^ or lampdda; chlamys, chlamydem^ 
or -'jda. 

In like manner these three, which have is pure in the genitive — Tros, 
Trois, Troem, and TVoa, a Trojan ; keres, a hero ; and Minos, a king of 
Crete. 

,d&r, the air ; (Ether, the sky ; delphin, a dolphin ; and pcean, a hymn, 
have usually a ; as, aera, cethira, delphlna, pcedna. Pan, a god, has 
only a. 

Exc. 1. Masculines in is, whose genitive increases in is or os impure, 
have their accusative in im or in; sometimes in idem; as, Paris, Paridis 
or Paridos ; Parim, Parin or Paridem. 

Exc. 2. Feminines in is, increasing impurely in the genitive, though 
they usually follow the rule, have sometimes im or in; as, Elis, EUdis or 
Elidos, Elidem or Elida, seldom Elim or Elin. 

So Tigris, signifying a river or a beast, has tigrXdem or tigrim ; signify- 
ing a beast, it has tigrin also. 

II. Greek nouns in is and 2/5, having is or os pure in the genitive, form 
their accusative by changing the s of the nominative into m or n; as, 
metamorphosis, -eos or -ios ; metamorphosim, or -osin, a change ; Tethys, 
-yis or -yos, Tethym or -yn. 

III. Nouns ending in the diphthong eiis have the accusative in ea; as, 
Theseus, Thesea; Tydeu^, Tydea. 

Demosthenes and Ganymedes have sometimes in the accusative, besides 
em, the termination ea. 

IV. Some Greek proper names in es, whose genitive is in is, have in 
Latin, along with the accusative in em, the termination en, as if of the 



34 THIRD DECLENSION. VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE* 

first declension ; as, Achilles, Ackillen ; Xerxes, Xerxen ; Sophocles, So* 
phoden. Some also, which have either etis or is in the genitive, have^ 
besides eterrij eta, or em, the termination en; as, Chr ernes, Tholes. 

VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

<§) 81. The vocative is like the nominative. 

Many Greek nouns, however, particularly proper names, drop s of the 
nominative to form the vocative; as, Daphnis, Daphni; Tethys, Tethy; 
Melampus, Melampu; Orpheus, Orpheu. Proper names in es (gen. is) 
sometimes have their vocative in e; as, Socrates, Socrdte. 



ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 
<§> 82. The ablative singular ends in e. 
Exc. 1. Neuters in e, al, and ar, have the ablative in i; as, 
sedile, sedlli; animal, animdli; calcar, calcdri. 

But names of towns in e, and the following neuters in ar, have e in the 
ablative ; viz. bacchar. an herb ; far, corn ; hepar, the liver ; jubar, a sun- 
beam ; nectar, nectar ; par,, a pair ; sal, salt. Mare, the sea, has either 
€ or i. 

Exc. 2. Nouns which have im or in in the accusative, and 
names of months in er or is, have i in the ablative ; as, vis, vim, 
vi ; December, Decemhri ; Aprtlis, Aprili, 

But Bcetis, cannabis, and tigris, have e or i. 

Exc. 3. Nouns which have em or im in the accusative, have 
their ablative in e or i ; as, turris, turre or turri. 

But restis, and Greek nouns which have idis in the genitive, have e 
only ; as, Paris, -liis, -ide. 

Exc. 4. Adjectives in is, used as nouns, have commonly i 
in the ablative, but sometimes e ; as, familidris, a friend ; 
natdlis, a birth-day. 

W^hen such adjectives become proper names, they always have e; as, 
JwG&tialis, Juvendle. Also, afflnis, a relation, has generally e ; as have 
siiw3,js juvenis, a youth ; rudis, a rod ; and volucris, a bird. 

Exc. 5. The following, though they have only em in t,he accusative,, 
have c or i in the ablative, but oftener e : — , 

Amnis, Finis, Occiput, Fngil, Tridens, 

Anguis, Fustis, Orbis, Rus, Unguis, 

Civis, Ignis, Pars, Sors, Vectis, 

Classis, Imber, Postis, Supellex, Vesper. 

CoUis, Mugilis, 

So also names of towns, denoting the place where any thing is said to 
be, or to be done, have sometimes the ablative in i; as, Carthagtni, at 
Carthage ; and, in the most ancient writers, many other nouns occur with 
this termination in the ablative. Candlis has i only. 

Exc. 6. Nouns in ys, which have ym or yn in the accusative, have 
their ablative in ye or y ; as, Mys, Mye, or My. 



fHIRD DECLENSION. PLURAL CASES. 35 

NOMINATIVE PLURAL. 

^ 83. The nominative plural of masculines and feminines 
ends in es ; as, sermones, rupes ; — but neuters have a, and those 
whose ablative singular ends in i have ia ; as, caput ^ capita ; 
sedilcy sedilia. 

Some Greek neuters have e in the nominative plural ; as, melos ; nom. 
plural J mele. 

GENITIVE PLURAL. 

The genitive plural commonly ends in urn; sometimes in 
ium. 

1. Nouns which, in the ablative singular, have i only, or e 
and z, make the genitive plural in ium ; as, sedile, sedili, sedilium ; 
turrisj turre or turri^ turrium. 

2. Nouns in es and is, which do not increase in the genitive 
singular, have ium ; as, nubes^ nuhium ; hostis^ hostium ; vis, 
virium, 

Exc. StrueSj votes, cants, juvenis, mugilis, pants, strigllis, have wm. 
Also sedes and mensis sometimes, and apis and volucris generally, have um. 

3. Monosyllables ending in two consonants have ium in the 
genitive plural ; as, urhs, urhium ; gens, gentium; arx, arcium. 

Exc. Lynx and ops (obsolete) have um. 

The following, also, have ium: — mas, glis, lis, os (ossis),faux, nix, nox, 
strix, and generally /?-«M5 and mus. 

4. Nouns of two or more syllables, in 7is or rs, and names of 
nations in as, have commonly ium; as, cliens, clientium ; Arpi- 
nas, Arpinatium. 

Other nouns in as have more frequently um; as, <£tas, (Btdtum. 
Penates and optimdtes have usually ium. 

5. The following have ium : — caro, linter, titer, venter, Samnis, Quiris, 
and usually Insuher. Fornax, lar, palus, and radix, have sometimes ium. 

6. Greek nouns have generally 2^m ; as, Thrax, Thracum ; — ^but a few, 
used as titles of books, have sometimes 6n ; as, Epigramma, epigramma- 
ton ; Metamorphosis, -eon. 

Remark 1. Bos has houm in the genitive plural. 

Remark 2. Nouns which want the singular, form the genitive plural 
as if they were complete ; as, manes, manium ; ccdites, codltum ; as if from 
manis and coeles. So also names of feasts in alia; as. Saturnalia, Satur- 
nalium; but these have sometimes drum after the second declension. 
CcelUes hfas sometimes codituum. 

DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL. 

<§) 84. The dative and ablative plural end in ihus. 

Exc. 1. Bos has holms and tubus, by contraction for bovtbus ; sus has 
subus for suibus. 



36 



THIRD DECLENSION. ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 



Exc. 2. Greek nouns in ma have the dative and ablative plural mort 
frequently in is than in ibus ; as, poema, poejndtis, or poeinoMhus. 

The poets sometimes form the dative plural of Greek nouns, that in- 
crease in the genitive, in si, and, before a vowel, in sin; as, herois, 
keroidis, heroisi, or heroisin. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 

<§y85. The accusative plural ends, like the nominative, in 
es, a, or ia. 

Exc. 1. Masculine and feminine nouns which have ium in the geni- 
tive plural, have sometimes in the accusative plural c^5, or is^ instead 
of es/ as, partes, gen. partium, ace. partes, parteis or partis. 

Exc. 2. When the accusative singular of nouns not neuter ends in a, 
the accusative plural ends in as ; as, lampas, lampada, lampddas. 



Jupiter f and vis^ strength, are thus declined : — 



Singular. 
N. Ju'-pi-ter^ 
G. Jo^-vis, 
D. Jo^-vi, 
Ac. Jo'-vem, 
V. Ju-pi-ter, 
Ah, Jo'-ve. 



Singular. 
N. vis, 
G. vis, 
D. — 
Ac. vim, 
V. vis, 
Ah. vi. 



Plural. 
vi'-res, 
vir'-i-um, 
vir^-i-bus, 
vi'-res, 
vi^-res, 
vir^-i-bus. 



^86. The 
Greek nouns of 

Norn. 

Lampas, 

-ades, 
Heros, 

-oes, 
Chelys, 
Poesis, 

Achilles, 

Orpheus, 

Aer, 

Dido, 



following table exhibits the principal forms of 
the third declension : — 



S. 
PI. 
S. 
PL 



Gen. 




Dat. 


-adis, 
-ados. 


I 


-adi, 


-adum, 




-adibus. 


-ois. 




-oi. 


»oum. 




-oibus. 


-yis, 

-yos, 


\ 


-yi. 


-is, -ios 
-eos. 


\ 


-i, 


-is, 
-eos, 


\ 


-i, 


-eos, 




-ei. 


-eris, 




-eri. 


-us. 




-0, 



Ace. 

(-adem, > 

Kada, ) 

<-ades, > 

\ -adas, > 

(-oem, ) 

^oa, > 

( -oes, ) 

^-oas, S 
(-ym, 

c-im, 
^in, 
c-em, ) 
^ea, S 

-ea, 

-era. 



Voc. 

-as, 

-ades, 

-OS, 

-oes, 

-y. 



-es, 

-eu, 
-er, 
-o, 



Ahl 
-ade. 

-adibus, 

-6e. 

-oibus. 

-ye or y. 

-i. 

-e. 

-ere. 
-o. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



37 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 

<5i 87. Nouns of the fourth declension end in us and u. 
Those in us are mascuHne ; those in u are neuter, and 
indechnable in the singular number. 

Nouns of this declension are thus declined : — 



Fructus 


, fruit. 


Cornu, a 


horn. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Singular. 


Plural 


N, fruc^-tus, 


fruc'-tus, 


N. cor'-nu, 


cor^-nu-a, 


G. fruc^-tus, 


fruc'-tu-um,* 


G. cor^-nu, 


cor^-nu-um, 


D. fruc'-tu-i,* 


fruc'-ti-bus, 


D. cor^-nu, 


cor'-nT-bus, 


Ac. fruc^-tum, 


fruc'-tus, 


Ac. cor^-nu, 


cor^-nu-a, 


V. fruc'-tus, 


fruc'-tus, 


V. cor^-nu, 


cor^-nu-a, 


Ah. fruc'-tu. 


fruc'-ti-bus. 


Ah. cor'-nu. 


cor^-ni-bus. 



In like manner decline 

Can'-tus, a song. Fluc'-tus, a wave. Se-na'-tus, the senate. 

Cur'-rus, a chariot. Luc'-tus, grief. Ge^-lu, ice. 

Ex-er'-ci-tus, an army. Mo^-tus, motion. Ve'-ru, a spit. 

Exceptions in Gender. 

<§> 88. 1. The following are feminine : — 

Acus, a needle. Ficus, a jig. Porticus, a gallery. 

Domus, a house. Manus, a hand. Tribus, a tribe. 

The plurals quinqudtrusj a feast of Minerva, and idus, the ides, are 
also feminine. 

Penus, a store of provisions, when of the fourth declension, is masculine 
or feminine. 

Specus, a den, is very rarely feminine or neuter. 

2. Some personal appellatives, and names of trees, are femi- 
nine by signification. See § 29, 1 and 2. 

Exceptions in •Declension. 

<§) 89. 1. Domus, a house, is partly of the fourth declension, 
and partly of the second. It is thus declined : — 
Singular. Plural. 

JV. Do'-mus, do^-mus, 

G. do'-mi^s, or do'-mi, dom'-u-um, or do-mo'-rum, 

D. dom'-u-i, or do'-mo, dom'-i-bus, 

Mc. do'-mum, do'-mus, or do'-mos, 

V. do'-mus, do'-mus, 

^b. do'-mo. dom'-i-bus. 



Fronouncedfi-uct' -yu-i. or fruc'-tshu-i, &c. §20. Exc. (c.) 



38 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



Domus, in the genitive, signifies, of a house ; domi commonly signifies. 
at home. The ablative domu is found in Plautus, in some copies of Livy, 
and in ancient inscriptions. 

Conius, a cornel-tree ; ficus, a fig-tree ; laurus, a laurel ; and myrttcs, a 
myrtle, are sometimes of the second declension. Penus is sometimes 
or the third. 

Some nouns in u have also forms in us and um ; as, cornu, cornus, or 
cornum. 

Remark. Nouns of this declension anciently belonged to the third, 
and were formed by contraction, thus : — 

Singular. 
JW Fructus, 
G. fructuis, -us. 



D. fructui, -u, 
c^c. fructuem, -um, 
V. fructus, 
.^b. fructue, -u. 



Plural. 
fructues, -us, 
fructuum, -um, 
fructuibus, -ubus, or -ibus, 
fructues, -us, 
fructues, -us, 
fructuibus, -ubus, or -ibus. 



2. The genitive singular in is is sometimes found in ancient authors. 
A genitive in i, after the second declension, also occurs ; as, sendtuSj 
sendti. 

3. The contracted form of the daiive in u is not often used ; yet it 
sometimes occm's, especially in Caesar, and in the poets. 

4. The contracted form of the genitive plural in um rarely occurs. 

5. The following nouns have uhus in the dative and ablative 
plural : — 

Acus, a needle. Lacus, a lake. Specus, a den. 

Arcus, a how. Partus, a hirtli. Tribus, a tribe. 

Artus, a joint. Pecu, a flock. 

GenUj a knee ; portus, a harbor ; tonitrus, thunder ; and veru, a spit^ 
have ibus or ubus. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



<55 90. Nouns of the fifth declension end in es, and are 
of the feminine gender. 



They are thus 


3 declined * — • 






Res. a 


thing. 


Dies, 


a day. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Singular. 


Plural 


N, res, 


res, 


N. di^-es. 


di^-es, 


G. re'-i, 


re^-rum, 


G. di-e'-i, 


di-e^-rum, 


D. xe'-i, 


re'-bus, 


D. di-e^-i, 


di-e^-bus, 


Ac. rem, 


res, 


Ac, di^-em, 


di'-es, 


V. res, 


res, 


V. di'-es, 


di'-es, 


Ah. re. 


re'-bus. 


Ah. di^-e. 


di-e^-bus. 



compound nouns, irregular nouns. 39 

Exceptions in Gender. 

Dics^ a day, is masculine or feminine in the singular, and 
always masculine in the plural ; meridies, mid-day, is mascu- 
line only. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

The genitive and dative singular sometimes end in e ; as, die for ditl. 
The genitive is sometimes also found in ii and cs ; as, pei'nicies, gen. per- 
nicii for perniciei ; rabies, gen. rabies, Lucr. Plebes has plebei or plebi. 

Remark 1. There are only fifty-seven nouns of this declension, and 
of these only two, res and dies, are complete in the plural. Most of them 
want the genitive, dative, and ablative plural, and many the plural 
altogether. 

2. All nouns of this declension end in ies, except foiw— fides, faith ; 
res, a thing ; spes, hope ; and plebes, the common people ; — and all nouns 
in ies are of this declension, except abies, aries , paries , and quies, which 
are of the third declension, and requies, which is of the third and fifth. 

Declension of Compound Nouns. 

<§> 91. When a compound noun consists of two nomina- 
tives, both parts are declined ; but when one part is a nomina- 
tive, and the other an oblique case, the nominative only is 
declined. Of the former kind are rcspuhUca, a commonwealth, 
and jusjurandum, an oath ; of the latter, niater-familias , a 
mistress of a family. 

Singular. Plural. 

JY. res-pub'-li-ca, res-pub'-li-cae, 

G. le-i-pub'-li-cse, . re-rum-pub-li-ca'-rum, 

D. re-i-pub'-li-c8e, re-bus-pub^-lT-cis, 

^c. rem-pub'-li-cam, res-pub'-li-cas, 

V. res-pub'-li-ca, res-pub'-li-coB, 

Ab. re-pub'-li-ca. re-bus-pub'-li-cis. 

Singular. Plural. 

JV. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran^-da, 

G. ju-ris-ju-ran'-di, 

D. ju-ri-ju-ran'-do, 



Ac. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da, 
V. jus-ju-ran'-dum, ju-ra-ju-ran'-da. 
Ab. ju-re-ju-ran^-do. 



Singular. 
JY. ma-ter-fa-mil'-i-as, 
G. ma-tris-fa-mil'-i-as, 
D. ma-tri-fa-mil'-i-as, 
Ac. ma-trem-fa-miP-i-as, 
V. ma-ter-fa-mil'-i-as, 
Ab. ma-tre-fa-mil'-i-as, &c. 



Note. The preceding compounds are divided and pronounced like the 
simple words of which they are compounded. 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
*§ 92. Irregular nouns are divided into three clastes — 



Variable, Defective, and Redundant. 



40 VARIABLE NOUNS. 

I. VARIABLE NOUNS. 

Nouns are variable either in gender or declension, or in both. 
Those which vary in gender are called heterogeneous ; those 
which vary in declension are called hetero elites. 

Heterogeneous Nouns, 

1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; such 
are, 

Avernus, Tsmarus, Mosnalus, Tsenarus, 

Dindymus; Massicus. Pangseus, Tartarus, 

Taygetus. 
Plural, Averna, &c. 

2. Masculine in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the 
plural; as, jocus, a jest; plur. joci, or joca; — locus, a place ; 
plur. Zoc/, passages in books, topics; Zoc«, places ; — sestertius, 
a sesterce ; plur. sestertii, or sestertia. 

3. Feminine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; as, 
carhdsus, a sail : plur. carhdsa; — Hierosolyma, -cb, Jerusalem; 
plur. Hierosolyma, -drum ; — margarita, -ce, a pearl ; plur. mar- 
garita, -drum ; — ostrea, -cb, an oyster ; plur. ostrea, -drum ; — 
Pergdmus; plur. Pergdma. 

4. Neuter in the singular, and masculine in the plural ; as, 
cceJum, heaven ; plur. cceU y — Elysium; plur. Elysii ; — Argos ; 
plur. Argi. 

5. Neuter in the singular, and masculine or neuter in the 
plural ; as, frcsmim, a bridle: plur. frceni ox frcena; — rastrum, 
a rake; plur. rastri, or rastra; — pugillar, a writing tablet; 
plur. pugilldres, or pugillaria. 

6. Neuter in the singular, and feminine in the plural ; as, 
epulum, a feast : plur. epulcB ; — balneum, a bath ; plur. halnecB, 
rarely balnea; — nundinum, a market-day ; plur. nundmce, a fair. 

7. Neuter in the singular, and feminine or neuter in the 
plural ; as, labium, a lip ; plur. labicB, and labia. 

Heteroclites. 

<§> 93. 1. Second or third declension in the singular, and 
third in the plural ; as, jugerum, an acre ; gen^ jugeri, or 
jugeris ; uhl.jugere ; plur., nom., and ace. jugera; gen. juge- 
rum ; M. jugeri s ^ud jugeribus, from the obsolete jw^ms or 
juger. 

2.» Third declension in the singular, and second in the plural ; 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



41 



as, vas, a vessel ; plur. vasa, drum. Ancile, a shield, has some- 
times ancilidriifn, in the genitive plural. 

Note. Variable nouns seem anciently to have been redundant, and to 
have retained a part of each of their original forms. Thus, vasa, -drum, 
properly comes from vasum, -i, but the latter, together with the plural of 
vas, vasisj became obsolete. 



II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

<§> 94. Nouns are defective either in case or number. 

1. Nouns defective in case may want either one or more 
cases. Some are altogether indeclinable, and are called aptotes. 

Such are nouns in u in the singular ; as, cGrmi, a horn : most nouns in i : 
foreign words : semis, a half: git, a seed: cepe, an onion : the singular of 
mille, a thousand : words put for nouns ; as, velle suinn, for sua voluntas, 
his own inclination : and names of the letters of the alphabet. 

A noun which is found in one case only, is called a Monop- 
tote; if found in two cases, a Diptote ; if in three, a Triptote ; 
if in four, a Tetraptote ; and if in five, a Pentaptote. 

The followinor list contains most nouns defective in case : — 



Abactus, ace. pi. ; a driving aioay. 
Accitu, ahl. ; a calling for. 
Admissu, abl. ; admission. 
Admoni'tu, ahl. ; admonition. 
2£,s, not used in gen. pi 



Coelite, abl. ; pi. entire ; inhabitants 

of heaven. 
Commutatum, ace. ; an alteration. 
Compedis, gen. ; compede, abl. ; a 

fetter ; — pi. compedes,-ium,-ibus. 



AfFatu, abl. ; an addressing ; — pi. Concessu, abl. ; permission. 



affatus, -ibus. 
Algus, nom. ; algum, ace. ; algu, or 

-o, abl. ; cold. 
Ambage, abl.; a winding stofy; — 

pi. ambages, -ibus. 
Amissum, ace. ; a loss. 
Aplustre, nom. and ace. ; the flag of 



Condiscipulatu, abl. ; companion- 
ship at school. 

Cratim, or -em, ace. ; -e, abl. ; a hur- 
dle ; — pi. crates, -ium, -ibus^. 

Daps, nom., scarcely used ; dapis, 
gen. &c. ; a feast. 

Datu, abl. ; a giving. 



a ship; — -pZ.aplustria, or aplustra. Derisui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl.; 



Arbitratus, nom. ; -um, ace. 
abl.; judgment. 

Arcessitu, abl. ; a sending for. 

Astu, nom., ace. ; a city. 

Astus, nom. ; astu, abl. ; craft ; — 
astus, ace. pi. 

Cacoethes, nom., ace. ; an evil cus- 
tom ; — cacoethe, nom. jfl- ; -e, 
and -es, ace. pi. 

Cetos, ace.; a whale; — cete, 7iom. 



ridicule. 
Despicatui, rf«^; contempt. 
Dica, nom. ; dicam, ace. ; a legal 

process ; — dicas, ace. pi. 
Dicis, gen. ; as, dicis gratia, for 

form's sake. 
Ditionis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace. ; 

-e, abl.; poiver. 
Diu, abl. ; in the day time. 
Divisui, dat. ; a dividing. 
Ebur, ivory ; — not used in the gen., 

dat., and abl. pi. 



and ace. pi. 
Chaos, nom., ace. ; chao, abl. ; chaos ; 

— but, signifying a deity, Chaon, Efflagitatu, abl. ; importunity. 

ace. [looking around. Ejectus, nom. ; a throioing out. 

Circumspectus, worn. ; -um ; -u ; a Epos, ace; an epic poem. 

Coactu, abl. ; constraint. Ergo, abl. ; for the sake. 



42 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS* 



Evectus, nom. ; a conveyance. 

F'eBx, dregs, wants ^e/i. pi. 

Fcir, corn, not used in the gen., 

dat., and abl. pi. 
Fas, 7iG7n., ace. ; right. 
Fauce, uhL ; the throat ; — pi. fauces, 

-ibus. 
Fax, a torch, wants gen. pi. 
Fe minis, o-e?i. ; -i, dat. ; -e, ahl. ; the 

thigh ; — pi. femina, -ibus. 
Flictu, ahl. ; a striking. 
Foris, nom. and gen. ; -em, ace. ; 
-e, ahl.; a door ; — pi. fores, -ibus. 
Foi's, nam.; -tis, gen.; -tern, ace; 

-te, abl. ; chance. 
Frustratui, ahl. ; a deceiving. 
Frux, fruit, nom., scarcely used; — 

frugis, gen., &c. 
Gausape, nom., ace, abl.; a rough 

garment ; — gausapa, ace. pi. 
Glos, nom., voc. ; a husband's sister. 
Grates, ace. pi. ; — gratibus, abl.;' 

thanks. 
Hiems, winter, not used in gen., 

dat., and abl. pi. 
Hippomanes, nom,. 
Rir, notn. cind ace. ; the palm of the 

hand. 
Ilortatu, ahl.; an exhorting; — pi. 

hortatibus. 
Impatis, gen. ; -e, a^l.; a shock; — pi. 

impetibus. 
Inconsultu, abl. ; icithout advice. 
Incitas, or -a, ace. j^l- ; as, ad incitas 

redactus, reduced to a strait. 
Indultu, abl. ; indulgence. 
Inferiae, nom. pi. ; -as, ace. ; sacrifices 

to the dead. 
Inficias, acc.pl.; a denial; as, ire 

inficias, to deny. 
Ingratiis, abl. pL ; against one's 

will. 
Injussu, abl. ; without leave. 
Inquies. nam.; disquiet. 
Instar, nom., ace.; a likeness. 
Interdiu, ahl. ; in the day time. 
Invitatu, ahl. ; an invitation. 
Jovis, nom., rarely used ; — pi. Joves. 
Irrisui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, ahl. ; 

derision. 
Jugeris, gen. ; -e,abL ; an acre ; — pi. 

jugera, -um, -ibus. 
J nssu, ahl. ; command. 
Labes, a spot, wants gen. pi. 
Lucu, abl. ; light. 
Ludificatui, dat ; a mockery. 



Lux, light, wants the gen. pi. 
Mandatu, abl. ; a command. 
Mane, nom., ace. ; mane, or -i, abl.; 

morning. 
Mel, honey, not used in gen., dat.^ 

and abl. pi. 
Melos, ace; melody; — mele, nom.^ 

ace. pi. 
Metus, /mr, not used in gen., dat. ^ 

and abl. pi. 
Missu^ abl. ; despatch ;— pi. missus, 

-ibus. 
Monitu, abl. ; admonition; — pi. men- 

itus. 
Natu, abl. ; by birth. 
Nauci, ge7i. ; as, res nauci. a thing 

of no value. 
Nefas, nom., ace. ; wickedness. 
Nemo, nobody, vv^ants the voc. and 

the pi. 
Nepenthes, nom. ; an herb. 
Nex, death, wants the voc. ; — neces^ 

nom., ace. pi. 
Nihil, or nihilum, nom. and ace. ; 

-i,gen.; -o,abl.; nothing. 
Noctu, abl. ; hy night. 
Nuptui, dat. ; -um, ace. ; -u, abl. ; 

jnarriage. 
Obex, nom. ; -icem, ace. ; -ice, or 

-jice, abl.; a bolt ;— pi. obiceSj 

-jicibus. 
Objectum, ace. ; -u, abl. ; an inter' 

position ; — pi. objectus. 
Obtentui, dat. ; -u, abl. ; a pretext. 
Opis, gen. ; opem, ace. ; ope, abl. ; 

help ; — pi. entire. 
Oppositu, abl.; an opposing; — pL 

oppositus. 
Opus, nom., ace. ; need. 
Os, the mouth, wants the gen^ pi. 
Panaces, nom. ; an herb. 
Pax, peace, wants gen. pi. 
Peccatu, abl. ; sinning. 
Pecudis, gen. ; -i, dat. ; -em, ace. ; 

-e, abl. ; — pi. entire. 
Pelage, nom., ace. pi. of pelagus ; 

the sea. 
Permissu, abl. ; permission. 
Piscatus, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -um, ace. ; 

-u, abl. ; a fishing. 
V\x, pitch, wants ^e?i. pZ. 
Pondo, ahl. ; in weight. 
Preci, dat. ; -em, ace. ; -e, ahl. ; 

prayer ; — pi. entire. 
Procerem, ace. ; a peer ; — pi. entire. 
Proles, offspring, wants gen. pi. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



43 



Relatu, ahL ; a relation. 
Repetundarum, gen. pi.; -isj abl.; 

extortion. 
RogatUj abl. ; a request. 
Rus, the country, wants gen., dot., 

and abl. pi. 
Satias, nom. ; -ateiiij ace. ; -ate, abl. ; 

satiety. 
Secus, n/jm., ace; sex. 
Situs, nom. ; -urn, ace, ; -u, abl. ; 

sHuMlon ;— situs, nom. and ace. 

pi. ; -ibus, abl. 
Situs, nom.; -Lis, gen.; -um, ace; 

-u, abl. ; rust ; — situs, ace. pi. 
Soboles, offspring, wants gen. pi. 
Sol, tke sun, wants gen. pi. 
Sordis, gen. ; -em, ace. ; -e, abl. ; 

filth ; — pi. sordes, -iuni, &c. 
Spontis, o-e/i. ; -ejobl.; of one's otmi 

accord. 
Suppetise, nam. pi. ; -as, ace. ; sup- 
plies. 
Tabum, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -o, ahl. ; 

gore. 
Tempe, nom., ace, voc. pi. ; a vale, 

in Thessaly. 



Thus, not used in the gen., dat., and 

abl. pi. 
Veprem, ace. ; -e, abl. ; a brier ; — pi. 

entire. 
Verberis, gen. ; -e, abl. ; a stripe ; — 

pi. verbera, -um, -ibus. 
Vesper, nom. ; -e or -i, abl. ; the 

evening. 
Vespera, nom.; -am, ace; -er^, 

abl. ; the evening. 
Vesperus, no?n. ; -o, dat. ; -um, ace ; 

-0, abl. ; the evening. 
Vicis, gen.; -i, dat.; -em, ace; -e, 

abl. ; change ; — pL entire, except 

gen. 
Virus, nom. ; -i, gen. ; -us, ace ; -o, 

abl.; poison. 
Vis, 7iom. ; vis, gen. ; vim, ace ; vi, 

abl. ; strength ; — pL vires, -ium, 

&c. 
Viscus, nom. / -eris, gen. ; -ere, abL ; 

an internal organ, pi. Visceio., Sdc. 
Vocatu, abl. ; a calling ; — vocatus, 

ace pi. 
Volupe, or volup', no?7i., ace ; pleas- 
ure. 



To these may be added nouns of the fifth declension, which either 
want the plural, as most of them are abstract nouns, or have in that num- 
ber only the nominative, accusative, and vocative. Res and dies, how- 
ever, have the plural entire. 

For the use of the vocative, also, of many words, no classical authority 
can be found. 

^ 95. 2. Nouns defective in number, want either the plural 
or the singular. 

(a.) Many nouns want the plural from the nature of the things 
which they express. Such are names of persons, most names 
of places (except those which have only the plural), the names 
of virtues, vices, arts, herbs, metals, minerals, liquors, and corn, 
most abstract nouns, and many others. 

The following list contains most other nouns which want the 
plural, and also some, marked p, which are included in the 
above classes, but are sometimes used in the plural. 



Acomtwra, wolfsbane, p. 
Adorea, corn. 
Aer, the air, p. 
iEs, brass, money, p. 
-^ther, the sky. 
jEvum, an age, p. 
Album, an album. 
Allium, garlic, p. 
ArmoiXidi, friendship, p. 



Argilla, white clay. 
Avena, oats, p. 
B ahl mum, balsam, p. 
Balaustium, the floioer 

of a pomegranate. 
Barathrum, a gulf. 
Galium, hardness of 

skin, p 
Calor, heat, p. 



Carduus, a thistle 

C^ivo, flesh, p. 

Cera, wax, p. 

Cestus, the girdle of 
Venus. 

Cicuta, hemlock, p. 

Coenum, mud. 

Contagium, a conta- 
gion, p. 



44 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



Crocilm, saffron. 

Crocus, saffron, p. 

Cruor, blood, p. 

Cutis, the skin, p. 

Diluculum, the dawn. 

Ebur, ivory, p. 

Electrura, amber, p. 

Far, co7'n. p. 

Fel, gall. 

Fervor, heat, p. 

Fides, faith. 

Fimus, dung. 

Fng^, flight, p. 

Fumus, smoke, p. 

Furor, madness, p. 

Galla, an oak apple. 

Gelu, frost. 

Glarea, gravel. 

Gloria, glory, p. 

Glastum, looad. 

Gluten, or 

Glutinum, glue. 

Gypsum, lohite plaster. 

Hepar, the liver. 

Hesperus, the evening 
star. 

Hilum, the black speck 
of a bean. 

Hordeum, barley, p. 

Humus, the ground. 

Indoles, the disposition. 

Ira, anger, p. 

Jubar, a sunbeam,. 

Jus, justice, law, p. 

Justitium, a law vaca- 
tion. 

Lsetitia, Jo?/, p. 

'L3.nguor,faintness, p. 

Lardum, bacon, p. 

Latex, liquor, p. 



Letum, death. 

Lignum, tcood, p. 

Limus, mud. 

Liquor, liquor, p. 

Lues, a plague. 

Lutum, clay. 

Lux, light, p. 

Macellum, the shambles. 

Mane, the morning. 

Marmor, marble, p. 

Mel, honey, p. 

Meridies, mid- day. 

Mors, death, p. 

Munditia, neatness, p. 

Mundus, female orna- 
ments. 

Muscus, moss. 

Nectar, nectar. 

Nemo, no man. 

Nequitia, wickedness, p. 

Nihil, nil, nihilum, no- 
thing. 

Nitrum, nitre. 

Ohlivio, for getfuhiess, p. 

Omasum, /fti tripe. 

Opium, opium. 

Paka, chaff, p. 

Pax, peace, p. 

Penum, and 

Penus, provisions. 

Piper, pepper. 

Pix, pitch, p. 

Pontus, the sea. 

Prolubium, desire. 

Pubes, the youth. 

Pulvis, dust, p. 

Purpura, jt?^^r/?Ze, p. 

Quies, rest, p. 

Ros, dew, p. 

Rubor, redness, p. 



Sabulo, gravel'. 
Sabulum, sand. 
Sal (neut.), salt ; — 

(masc), p. 
Salum, the sea. 
Salus, safety. 
Sol, the sun, a day, p. 
Sanguis, blood. 
Scrupulum, a scruple.p. 
Senium, old age. 
Siler, an osier. 
Sinapi, mustard. 
Siser, a carrot, p. 
Sitis, thirst. 
Sopor, sleep, p. 
Specimen, an example, 
Spumti, foam, p. 
Sulphur, sulphur, p. 
Supellex, furniture. 
Tabes, a consumption, 
Tabum, gore. 
Tepor, heat, p. 
Ten'or, terror, p. 
Thymum, thyme, p. 
Tribulus, a thistle, p. 
Tristitia, sadness, p. 
V^er, spring. 
Verbena, vervain, p. 
Vespera, the evening. 
Veternum, and 
Veternus, lethargy. 
Vigor, strength, p. 
Vinum, wine, p. 
Virus, 2^oison. 
Viscum, and 
Viscus, birdlime. 
Vitrum, looad. 
Vulgus, the common 

people. 
Zingiber, ginger. 



<§) 96. {h.) The names of festivals and games^ and several 
names of places and books, want the singular ; as, Baccha- 
nalia, a festival of Bacchus ; Olympia, the Olympic games ; 
BucoMca, a book of pastorals ; and the following names of 
places : — 



Acroceraunia, Ecbatana, 

Amyclse, Esquilias, 

Artaxata, Fundi, 

Athenge, Gabii, 

BaiaB, Gades, 
Ceraunia, 



GemonisB scalse, 

Locri, 

Parisii, 

Philippi, 

Pnteoli, 



Susa, 

Syracusae, 

Thermopylae, 

Veil, 

Venetiae 



Those in i more properly signify the people. 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



45 



The following list contains most other nouns ivhich want the 
singular^ and also some, marked s, which are rarely used in 
that number : — 



Acta, acts. 

Adversaria, a memo- 
randum-book, 

jEstlva, sc. castra, sum- 
mer quarters. 

Alpes, the Alps, s. 

Annales, annals, s. 

Antae, doorposts, s. 

Antes, fore ranks. 

Antice, a forelock. 

Apinoe, trifles. 

Argiitise, witticisms, s. 

Arma, arms. 

Artus, the joints, s. 

Bellaria, sioeetmeats. 

Bigee, a two-horse char- 
iot, s. 

Braccoe, breeches. 

Branchise, the gills of a 
fish. 

Brevia, shallow places. 

Calendae, Calends. 

Cancelli, balustrades. 

Cani, graij hairs. 

Casses, a hunter's net, s. 

Caulae, sheep-folds. 

Celeres, light horse. 

Coelltes, the gods, s. 

Cibaria, victuals. 

Clitell^, panniers. 

Codicilli, writings. 

Crepundia, bawbles. 

Cunabula, and 

Cunas, a cradle. 

Cyclades, the Cycladian 
islands, s. 

Decimae, tithes, s. 

Diras, the Furies, s. 

Divitiifi, riches. 

Druides, the Druids. 

Dryades, the Dryads, s. 

Epiilae, a banquet, s. 

Eumenides, the Fu- 
ries, s. 

Excubiae, watches. 

Exequise,/w7ieraZ rites. 

Exta, entrails. 

Exuviae, spoils. 

Tacetiae, pleasant say- 
in or s, s. 



Ferise, holidays. 

Fides, a stringed in- 
strument, s. 

Flabra, blasts. 

Fraga, straicberries, s. 

Fraces, tlte lees of oil. 

Gemini, twins, s. 

Genae, cheeks, s. 

Gerrag, trifles. 

Grates, thanks. 

Habenae, reins, s. 

Hyades, the Hyades, s. 

Hyberna, sc. castra, 
winter quarters. 

Idus, the ides of a month. 

Ilia, the flank. 

Incunabula, a cradle. 

Indutiae, a truce. 

Induviae, clothes. 

Ineptiae, silly wit, s. 

Inferi, the gods below^ 

InferiaB, sacrifices to the 
dead. 

Insecta, insects. 

Insidiae, snares. 

J usisi, funeral rites. 

Lactes, small entrails, 

Lamenta, lamentations. 

Lapicidlnae, a stone- 
quarry. 

Li^tehrds, lurking places, 
s. 

Laurices, young rabbits. 

Lautia, presents to for- 
eign ambassadors. 

Lemures, hobgoblins. 

Lendes, nits. 

Liberi, children, s. 

Luceres, a tribe of the 
Romans. 

Magalia, cottages. 

Majores, ancestors, s. 

Manes, the shades, s. 

Manubiae, spoils of war. 

Mapalia, huts, s. 

Minaciae, and 

Minae, threats. 

Min(3res, successors. 

McEnia, the walls of a 
city. 



Multitia, garmentsfint- 

ly wrought. 
Munia, offices. 
Naiades, fountain 

nymphs, s. 
Nares, the nostrils, s. 
Natales, parentage. 
Nates, the haunches, s. 
NomaB, corroding sores, 

s. 
Nonae, the nones of a 

month. 
Nugas, trifles. 
Nundinae, a fair, a 

Tnart. 
Nuptiae, a marriage. 
0\AW\di,forgetfulness, s 
OfFuciae, cheats, s. 
Optimates, nobles, s. 
Pandeetae, pandects. 
Palearia, the dewlap, s. 
Parietinae, old walls. 
Partes, a party. 
Pascua, pastures, s. 
Penates, household 

gods, s. 
Phalerae, trappings, s. 
Philtra, love potions. 
Pleiades, the seven 

stars, s. 
Posteri, posterity. 
Praebia, an amulet. 
Praecordia, the parts 

about the heart. 
Primitiae , first fruits. 
Proceres, nobles, s. 
Pugillaria, or -ares, a 

note-book, s. 
Quadrigae, a four horse 

chariot, s. 
Quirites, citizens of 

Rome, s. 
Quisquiliae, refuse. 
Reliquiae, a remainder, 

s. 
Salebrae, rugged places, 

s. 
Sallnae, a salt pit. 
Scalae, a ladder, s. 
Scatebrae, a spring, s. 



46 



DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 



Scopge, a broom. 
Scruta, old clothes. 
Sentes, thorns^ s. 
Sponsalia, espousals. 
Stativa, sc. ca'stra, a 

pitched camp. 
Superi, the gods above. 
Talaria, loinged shoes. 

<§> 97. The following differ in meaning in the different, 
numbers :— 



Tenebrse, darkness. 
Tesqua, rough places. 
ThermaB, hot baths. 
Tormina, colic pains. 
Transtra, seats for row- 
ers, s. 
Tricae, trifles, toys. 



Utensiliaj utensils. 
Yal^ee, folding doors^ 
Vepres, brambles, s. 
Vergilias, the seven stars, 
Vindicias, a claim of 

liberty. 
Virgulta, bushes. 



-^des, -is, a temiJle. 

Mdies, -ium, a house. 

Auxilium, aid. 

Auxilia, auxiliary 
troops. 

Ronura, a good thing. 

Bona, property. 

Career, a prison. 

Carceres, a goal. 

Castrum, a cattle ^ 

Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a jyart of the 
Roman forum. 

Comitia. an assembly 
for election. 

Cupedia, -se, delicacy. 

Cupediffi, -arum, and 

Cupedia, -orum, dain- 
ties. 

Copia, plenty. 

Copias, forces. 

Facultas, ability. 

Facultates, loealth. 



Fala, a trick. 
False, scaffolding. 
Fastus, -us, pride. 
Fastus, -uum, and 
Fasti, -oruni, a calendar. 
Finis, an end. 
Fines, boundaries. 
Fortuna, Fortune. 
Fortunse, wealth. 
Furfur, bran. 
Furfures, dandruff. 
QrYoXm, favor. 
Gratise, thanks. 
Impedimentum, a hin- 

derance. 
Impedimenta, baggage. 
Litera, a letter of the 

alphabet. 
Literse, an epistle. 
Lustrum, a space of five 

years. 
Lustra, dens of wild 

beasts^ 



Mos, custom. 

Mores, manners. 

Opis, ge,ii. help. 

Opes, -um, poicery 
wealth. 

Opera, labor. 

Operge, workmen, 

Plaga, a climate. 

Plagee, nets, toils. 

Principium, a begin- 
ning. 

Principia, the generaVs 
quarters. 

Rostrum, a beak. 

Rostra, a pulpit or tri- 
bunal. 

Rus, the country. 

l^UYSi, fields. 

Sal, salt. 

Sales, ivitticisms. 

Torus, a bed, a cord. 

Tori, braicny muscles. 



^ 98* The following plurals are sometimes used for the 
singular : — 



Alta, the sea. 
Animi, courage. 
Auras, the air. 
Carinas, a keel. 
Cervices, the neck. 
Colla, the neck. 
Comas, the hair. 
Connubia, marriage. 
Corda, the heart. 
Corpora, a body. 
Crepuscula, twilight. 
Currus, a chariot. 
Exilia, banishment. 
Frigora, cold. 
Gaudia, jo?/. 
Gramina, grass. 



Guttura, the throat. 
Hymenasi, marriage. 
J ejun'm, fasting. 
Ignes, love. 
Inguina, the groin. 
Jubae, a mane. 
Limina, a threshold. 
Litora, a shore. 
Mensse, a service or 

course of dishes. 
Naenias, a funeral dirge. 
Numina, the divinity. 
Odia, hatred. 
Or a, the mouth, the 

countenance. 
Orae, confines. 



Ortus, a rising, the east. 
Otia. ease, leisure. 
Pectora, tihe breast. 
Rictus, thejaics. 
Robora, oak, strength. 
Silentia, silence. 
Sinus, the breast of a. 

Roman garment. 
Tasdas, a torch, 
Tempora, time. 
Thalami, marriage, or 

marriage-bed. 
Thura. frankincense. 
Tori, a bed, a couch. 
Vias, a journey. 
Vultus. t/i2 countenance^ 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 47 



III. REDUNDANT NOUNS. 

<§> 99. Nouns are redundant either in termination, in 
declension, in gender, or in two or more of these respects. 

1. In termination: (a.) of the nominative; as, arbor, and 
arhos^ a tree : (h.) of the oblique cases; VLS,tigris ; gen. tigris, 
or 'idis ; a tiger. 

2. In declension ; as, laurus ; gen. -2, or -us ; a laurel. 

3. In gender ; as, vulgus, masc. or neut. ; the common 
people. 

4. In termination and declension ; as, seiiecta, -^, and senec- 
tuSy -utis ; old age, 

5. In termination and gender ; as, pileus, masc, and pileum, 
neut. ; a hat. 

6. In declension and gender ; as, penus, -us, masc, and 
peniis, -oris, neut. ; a store of provisions. 

7. In termination, declension, and gender ; as, menda, -cb, 
fem., and mendum, -i, neut. ; a fault. 

The following list contains most Redundant Nouns of the 
above classes : — 

Abusio, and -us. -u5, an abuse. Barbaria, and -ies, harharism. 

Acinus, and -um, a grape- stone. Barbitus, and ^on, a harp. 

Adagium, and -io, a proverb. Batillus, and -um, afire shovel. 

Admonitio, and -us, -us^ an advising. Blanditia, and -ies, flattery. 

iEthra, and ^ther, the clear sky. Buccina, and -um, a trumpet. 

AfFectio, and -us, -us, affection. Bura, and -is, a plough-tail. 

Agamemno, and -on, .Agamemnon. Buxus, and -um, the box-tree. 

Alabaster, -tri, and -trum, an alabas- Calamister, -tri, and -trum, a crisp 

ter box. ing-pin. 

Alimonia, and -um, aliment. Callus, and -um, hardness of the skin* 

Ailuvio, and -es, a flood. Cancer, -ei'i, or -eris, a crab. 

Alvearlum, and -are, a bee-hive. Canitia, and -ies, hoariness. 

AinsiYaiCns, and -um, sweet marjoram. Capus, and Capo, a capon. 

Anfractum, and -us, -us, a winding. Cassida, and Cassis, a helmet. 

Angiportum, and -us, -us, a narrow Catlnus, and -um, a platter, 

way. Cepa, and -e, an onion. 

AntidOtus, and -um, an antidote. Chirographus, and -um, a hand writ- 
Aranea, and -us, a spider. ing. 



Arar, and -aris, the river Jlrar. Cingula, -us, and -um, a girdle. 

Arbor, and -os, a tree. Clypeus, and -um, a shield. 

Architectus, arid -on, an architect. Cochlearium, -ar, and -are, a spoon. 

Attagena, and -gen, a woodcock. Colluvio, and -ies, filth. 

Avaritia, and -ies, avarice. Commentarius, and -um, a journal. 

Augmentum, and -men, increase. Compages, and -o, a joining. 

Baccar, and -aris, a kind of herb. Conatum, and -us, -us, an attempt. 

Baculus, and -um, a staff. Concinnitas, and -tudo, neatness. 

Balteus, and -um, a belt. Consortium, and -io, partnership^ 



48 



REDUNDANT NOUNS. 



Contagium, -io, and -es, contact. 
Cornus, -i, or -us, a cornel-tree. 
Costus, and -um, a kind of shrub. 
Crocus, and -um, saffron. 
Crystallus, and -um, crystal. 
Cubitus, and -um, a cuhit. 
Cupiditas, and -pido, desire, 
Cupressus, -z, or -us, a cypress-tree. 
Culeus, and -um, a leathern hag. 
Delicia, and -um, a delight. 
Oelphinus, and Delphin, a dolphin, 
Desidia, and -es, sloth. 
Dictamnus, and -um, dittany. 
^)iluvium, and -ies, a deluge. 
Domus, -i, or -us, a house. 
Dorsus, and -um, the hack. 
Duritia, a7id -ies, hardness. 
Ebenus, and -um, ehony. 
Effigia, omd -ies, an image. 
Elegeia, and -us, an elegy. 
Elepliantus, and -phas, an elephant. 
Esseda, and -um, a chariot. 
Evander, -dri, and -drus, Evander. 
Eventum, and -us, -us, an event. 
Exemplar, and -are, a copy. 
Ficus, -i, or -us, a Jig-tree. 
Fimus, and -um, dung. 
Fretum, and -us, -us, a strait. 
Fulgetra, and -um, lightning. 
Galerus, and -um, a hat. 
Ganea, and -um, a suhterrancous 

room. 
Gibba, -us, and -er, -eri, a hunch. 
Glomus, -i, or -eris, ahall of thread. 
Glutinum, and -ten, glue. 
Gobius, and -io, a gudgeon. 
Ginis, and Grus, a crane. 
Hebdomada, and -mas, a week. 
Helleborus, and -um, hellehore. 
Honor, and -os, honor. 
Hyssopus, and -um, hyssop. 
Ilios, and -on, Troy. 
Incestum, and -us, -us, incest. 
Intubus, and -um, endive. 
Jugulus, and -um, the throat. 
Juventa, -us, and -as, youth. 
Labor, and -os, lahor. 
Lacerta, and -us, a lizard. 
Laurus, -i, or -us, a laurel. 
Lepor, and -os, loit. 
Libraria, and -um, a hook-case. 
Ligur, and -us, -uris, a Ligurian. 
Lupinus, and -um, a lupine. 
Luxuria, and -ies, luxury. 
Masander, -dri, and -drus, Mceander. 



Materia, and -ies, materials. 
Medimnus, and -um, a measure. 
Menda, and -um, a fault. 
Miliiarium, and -are, a mile. 
Modius, and -um, a measure. 
Mollitia, and -ies, softness. 
Momentum, and -men, motion. 
Mugil, and -ills, a mullet. 
Mulciber, -eri, or -eris, Vulcan. 
Mulctra, and -um, a milk-pail. 
Munditia, and -ies, neatness. 
Muria, and -ies, hrine or pickle, 
Myrtus, -^, or -us, a myrtle. 
Nardus, and -um, spikenard. 
Nasus, and -um, tlte nose. 
Necessitas, and -udo, necessity. 
. Nequitia, and -ies, wickedness. 
Notitia, and -ies, knowledge. 
Oblivium, and -\o,forgetfulness. 
Obsidium, and -io, a siege, 
CEdipus, -z, or -odis, (Edipus. 
Orpheus, -ei, or -eos, Orpheus. 
Palatus, and -um, the palate. 
Palumba, -es, and -us, -us, a pigeon. 
Papyrus, and -um, papyrus. 
Paupertas, and -ies, poverty. 
Pavus, and -o, a peacock. 
Penus, -oi'is, or -us, and Penum. 

provisions. 
Peplus, and -um, a veil. 
Perseus, -ei, or -eos, Perseus. 
Pileiis, and -um, a hat. 
Pinus, 4, or -us, a pine-tree. 
Pistrlna, and -wm., a hake-house. 
Planitia, and -ies, a plain. 
Plato, and -on, Plato. 
Plebs, and Plebes, -ei, the common 

people. 
Postulatum, and -io, a request. 
Praesepes, -is, and -e, a stahle. 
Praetextum, and -us, -us, a pretext. 
Prosapia, and -ies, lineage. 
Rapa, and -um, a turnip. 
Requies, -etis, or -ei, rest. 
Rete, and -is, a net, 
Reticulus, and -um, a, small net. 
Rictum, and -us, -us, the mouth. 
Ruscus, and -um, butcher's hroom. 
Saevitia, and -ies, cruelty. 
Sagus, and -um, a soldier s cloak. 
Sanguis, and -guen, blood. 
Satrapes, and Satraps, a satrap. 
Scabritia, and -ies, roughness. 
Scobis, and Scobs, sawdust. 
Scorpius, and -io, a scorjnon. 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 49 

Scrobis, and Scrobs, a ditch. Tabus, and -um, gore. 

Segmentum, and -men, a piece. Tapetum, -ete, and -es, tapestry. 

Segnitia, and -ies, sloth. Tenerltas, and -tudo, softness. 

Senecta, and -us, old age. Tiara, arid -as, a turban. 

Sensum, and -us, -us, sense. Tignus, and -um, a plank. 

Sequester, -tri, or -tris, an umpire. Tigris, -is, or -tdis, a tiger. 

Sesima, a?id -um, sesame. Titanus, and Titan, Titan. 

Sibilus, and -um, a hissing. Tonitruum, and -trus, thunder. 

Sinapi, and -is, mustard. Torale, and -al, a bed covering. 

Sinus, and -um, a milk-pail. Trabes, and Trabs, a beam. 

Sparus, ajid -um, a spear. Tribula, and -um, a threshing ma- 
Spurcitia, a7id -ies, Jilthiness. chine. 

Squalitudo, and Squalor, JiltMness. Vespera, -perus, and -per, the even- 
Stramentum, and -men, straw. ing. 

Suffimentum, and -men, a perfume. Mnaceus, and -um, a grape-stone. 

Suggestus, and -um, a pulpit. Viscus, and -um, birdlime. 

Supparus, and -um, a veil. Vulgus, masc.andneut.,i^e common 
Supplicium, and -icatio, a suppli- people, 

cation. 

To these may be added some other verbals in us and io, and Greek 
nouns in o and on; as, Dio and Dion ; also some Greek nouns in es and 
e, which have Latin forms in a ; as, Mrides and Atrida. See § 45. 

Some proper names of places also are redundant in number ; as, Argos 
and Argi ; Cuma and Cumce ; Fidena and Fidence ; Thebe and Thebm. 

The different forms of most words in the above list are not equally 
common, and some are rarely used, or only in particular cases. 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

<§> 100* Nouns are derived from other nouns, from adjec- 
tives, and from verbs. 

I. From nouns are derived the following classes : — 
1. A pat r 0717/ mi c is the name of a person, derived from that 
of his father or other ancestor, or of the founder of his nation. 

Patronymics are properly Greek nouns, and have been borrowed from 
that language by the Latin poets. 

Most masculine patronymics end in ides ; as, Priamides, a 
son of Priam ; RomuUdcB, the Romans, from their first king, 
Romulus. Those from nouns in eus usually contract aides into 
ides ; as, Atrldes, from Atreus. Those from nouns in as and 
es, of the first declension, end in ddes ; as, jEneddes, from 
jTjneas ; but some, from nouns of this and of other declensions, 
end in iddes ; as, Anchisiddes , from AncMses ; Abantiddes, from 
Abas. 

To masculine patronymics in ides, eides, ades, and iddes, 

correspond feminines in is, eis, as, and ias ; as, Tynddris, the 

daughter of Tynddrus ; Nereis, the daughter of Nereus ; Thes- 

Has, the daughter of Thestius ; JEetias, the daughter of ^etes, 

5 



50 DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

A feminine in t7ie is also found ; as, Nerine, from Nereus, 

Patronymics in des and ne are of the first declension ; those in is and as^ 
of the third. 

2. A patrial or gentile noun is derived from the name of a 
country, and denotes an inhabitant of that country ; as, Tros, a 
Trojan man ; Troas, a Trojan woman ; MacedOy a Macedo- 
nian ; Samnis, 3, Samnite; from Troja, Macedonia, smd Sam- 
niwn. 

Most patrials are properly adjectives, relating to a noun understood ; 
as, homo, civis, &c. 

3. A diminutive signifies a small thing of the kind denoted 
by the primitive. 

Diminutives generally end in lus, la, or lum, according as the 
primitive is masculine, feminine, or neuter. These terminations 
KX9. usually added either to the nominative or to the root of the 
prmiitive : commonly u or cu is inserted before them : as, ado^ 
lescefitulus, a very young man, from adolescens, a youth ; arula, 
a little altar, from ai^a; scutulum,, a little shield, from scutum; 
fraterculus, mulicrcula, opusculum, from frater, mulier, and opus. 

In some, o is inserted instead of w; a.s,Jilidlus, from Jilius. 

A few diminutives end in leus ; as, equuleus, from equus, a 
horse. 

Sometimes the root of the primitive is variously modified ; 
as, homunculus, asellus, lihellus, from homo, asmus, and liber. 

Some diminutives differ in gender from their primitives ; as, 
ranunculus, scamilliis, from rana and scamnum. 

4. Amplijicatives are personal appellations, denoting an ex- 
cess of what is expressed by their primitives ; as, capito, one 
who has a large head, from caput, the head; naso, one who has 
a large nose, from nasus, the nose. 

5. The termination ium or itium, added to the root of a noun, 
indicates an assemblage of the individuals denoted by the prim- 
itive, or their office or employment; as, collegium, an assembly 
of colleagues ; servitium, a collection of servants ; sacerdotium, 
the priesthood ; ministerium, a ministry ; from collega, servus, 
sacerdos, and minister. 

6. The termination imonium is added to the root of a few 
nouns, denoting that which gives to the primitives their char- 
acter ; as, testimonium, testimony ; vadimoniufn, obligation ; 
from testis and vas (vadis). 

7. The termination etum, added to the root of names of 
plants, denotes a place where they grow in abundance ; as, 
queycetum, lauretum, from quercus, an oak, and laurus, a laurel. 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 51 

But some are irregular ; as, ai^bustum^ salictum; from arhos, a 
tree, and saliXy a willow. 

8. The termination arimn, added to the root of a noun, de- 
notes the place where the things signified by the primitive are 
kept; as, aviarium, plantariwn ; from avis, a bird, ^nA plant a, 
a plant. 

9. The termination lie, also, added to the root of words de- 
noting animals, marks the place where they are kept ; as, ho- 
vile, caprile, ovile ; from hos, an ox, caper, a goat, and ovis, a 
sheep. 

This and the preceding class are properly neuter adjectives. 

^101. II. From adjectives are derived the following forms 
of abstract nouns. See § 26. 

1. The terminations Uas, ia, itudo, and edo, are added to 
the root of the primitive ; as, cupiditas, desire ; audacia, bold- 
ness ; magnitudo, greatness ; albedo, whiteness ; from cupidus, 
audax, magnus, and alhus. 

So atrocitas, crudelitas, from atr ox and crudelis ; concordia.perjidui, from 
concors smd perfidus ; slmilitudo, longitudo, from similis Sindlongus; dul- 
cedo, pinguedoy from dulcis said pinguls. 

When the root ends in i, the abstract is formed in etas ; as, 
pietas, piety ; anxietas, anxiety ; from plus and anxius. 

Libertas, liberty, is contracted from liberitas ; and difficultas, 
difficulty, from difficilitas. 

A few abstracts are formed in itus or tus, instead of itas ; as, 
servitus, slavery ; juventus, youth ; from servus and juvenis. 

Instead of ia, some adjectives in us add itia, or ities, to the 
root ; as, avaritia, avarice ; justitia, justice ; from avdrus and 
Justus ; — durities, hardness ; scevities, cruelty ; from durus and 

SCBVUS. 

Consuetudo, custom, and mansuetudo, mildness, omit it in the 
termination, as their root ends in t. 

2. A few adjectives form abstracts in imonia ; as, acrimonia, 
tartness ; sanctimonia, sanctity ; from acer and sanctus. 

Absfracts are sometimes formed from the same adjective with 
different terminations ; as, claritas and claritiido, from clarus. 

Adjectives, as distinguished from the abstracts which are 
formed from them, are called concretes. 

<§> 102. III. Nouns derived from verbs are called verbal 
nouns. 

The following are the principal classes : — 

1 , The termination or, added to the first root of a verb, espe- 



52 



DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 



cially of a neuter verb, denotes the action or state of the verb 
abstractly; rs, amor, lo\e; favor, favor; mceror, grief; splen- 
dor, brightness ; from amo,faveo, mcBreo, and spUndeo. 

2. From many verbs abstracts are formed by adding ium to 
the first root ; as, coUoquimn, a conference ; gaudium, joy ; ex- 
ordium, a beginning; from colloquor, gaudeo, and exordior. 

Some words of this class are formed by changing final w, in 
the third root of the verb, mioium; as, exitium, destruction; 
solatium, consolation; from exeo (exitu) and solor (soldtu). 

3. Some verbals are formed by adding ila, imonia, or imonium, 
to the first root of the verb ; as, loquela, speech ; querela, a com- 
plaint ; siiadela, persuasion ; from loquor, queror, and suadeo ; 
— alimonia and alimonium, nutriment, from alo ; — querimonia, 
a complaint, from queror. 

4. The termination mentum, added to the first root of the 
verb, generally with a connecting vowel, denotes a means for 
the performance of the action of the verb ; as, documentum, a 
means of teaching ; from doceo. So hlandimentum , experimen- 
tum., ornamentuw, from hlandior^ experior, and orno. 

The termination men has sometimes a similar signification ; 
as, tegmen, a covering ; from tego. 

Some words of this class have no primitive verb in use ; as, 
atramentum, capillamentum, &/C. 

5. The terminations ulum, hulum, and culum, added to the 
first root of a verb, the two last with a connecting vowel, denote 
a means or instrument; as, cijigulum, a girdle; jaculum, a jave- 
lin ; V eJii culum, 2i vehicle; venahulum, a hunting-spear ; from 
cingo, jacio, veho, and venor. 

Some v/ords of this kind are formed from nouns ; as, acetab- 
ulum, a vinegar cruet ; thurihulum, n censer.; from acetum and 
thus. 

6. Nouns formed by changing final u, in the third root of the 
verb, into or and jnx, denote respectively the male and female 
agent of the action expressed by the verb; as, adjutor, adjutrix, 
an assistant; fautor, fautrix, a favorer ; victor, victrix, a con- 
queror ; from adjuvo (adjutu) , faveo (fautu), vinco (victu). 

The feminine form is less common than the masculine. 

Some nouns in tor are formed immediately from other nouns ; 
as, viator, a traveller ; janitor, a door-keeper ; from via and 
janua, 

7. Many abstract nouns are formed by changing final w, in 
the third root of a verb, into io and us ; as, actio^ an action ; 



COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 53 

cautio, caution; lectio, reading; from ago (actu), caveo [cau- 
tii), lego (lectu) ; — cantus, singing; visus, sight; usus, use; 
from catio (cantu), video {visu), utor (u$u). 

Nouns of both forms, and of the same signification, are fre- 
quently derived from the same verb ; as, concursio and concur- 
sus, a running together ; motio and motus, &lc. 

The termination ra, added to the third root of a verb, some- 
times has the same signification as io and us, and sometimes 
denotes the result of an action ; as, positiira, position ; vinctu- 
ra, a binding together; ^wn\ pono (positu), and vincio (vinctu) ; 
— conjectii7^a, a conjecture ; pictura, a picture ; from conjicio 
(conjectu) ^nd ping o (pictu). 

One of the forms in io, us, and iira, is generally used to the exclusion 
of the others, and when two or more are found, they are usually employ- 
ed in somewhat different senses. 

8. The termination oriwii, added to the third root of a verb, 
after u is removed, denotes the place w^here the action of the 
verb is performed ; as, auditorium, a lecture-room ; conditorium, 
a repository ; from audio and condo, 

COMPOSITION OF NOUNS. 

<§» 103. Compound nouns are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns; as, rupicdpra, a wWd godX, of rupes and 
capra. In some words, compounded of two nouns, the former 
is a genitive ; as, senatusconsultum, a decree of the senate ; JU" 
risconsultus, a lawyer. In others, both parts are declined ; as, 
respubUca, jusjurandum. See § 91. 

2. Of a noun and a verb ; as, artifex, an artist, of ars and 
facio;fidicen, a harper, of ^Jzs and cano ; agricdla, a hus- 
bandman, of ager and colo ; patriclda, a patricide, of pater and 
ccedo. 

3. Of an adjective and a noun ; as, cequinoctium, the equinox, 
of (Bquus and nox ; millepeda, a millepede, of mille and pes. 

In duwnvir, triumvir, decemvir, centumvir, the numeral adjec- 
tive is in the genitive plural. 

Remark. When the former part of the compound is a noun 
or an adjective, it usually ends in i. If the second word begins 
with a vowel, an elision takes place ; as, quinquennium, of quin- 
que and annus, 

4. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, nefas, wickedness ; nemOy 
nobody ; ofne,fas, and homo. 

5. Of a preposition and a noun ; as, incuria, want of care, of 

5* 



54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

in and cura. So intervallum, the space between the ramparts-; 
prcBcordia^ the vitals; proverhium^ a proverb; subsellium^SisesX^ 
superficies, a surface. 

When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is 
sometimes changed, to adapt it to that which follows it : aS:^ * 
immortalitas, imprudenticL 



ADJECTIVES. 

<5> 104. An adjective is a word which qualifies or limits 
the meaning of a substantive. 

Adjectives may be divided, according to their signification^ 
into various classes ; as denoting, 

1. duality ; as, bonus, good ; alhus, white. 

2. Quantity ; as, magnus, great ; totus, the whole. 

3. Matter ; as, abiegnus, made of fir ; aureus^ golden, 

4. Time ; as, annuus, yearly ; liesternus, of yesterday. 

5. Place ; as, alius, high ; tncinus, near. 

6. Relation ; as, amicus, friendly ; aptus, fit. 

7. Number; as, unus, one; secundus, second. These are 
called numerals. 

8. Possession ; as, herilis, a master's ; paternus, of a father. 
These are caWed posses sives. 

9. Country ; as, Romdnus, Roman ; Arpinas, of Arplnum. 
These are d^Wed patrials. 

10. Part ; as, ullus^ any one ; alter, another. These are call- 
ed partitives. 

11. Interrogation; as, quantus, how great? qualis , o^ wYi^t 
kind ? These are called interrogatives ; when not used inter- 
rogatively, they are called indefinites, 

12. Diminution ; as, parvulus, from parvus, small ; misellus, 
from miser, miserable. These are called diminutives. 

13. Amplification; as, vinosus and vinolentus , mwoh given 
to wine ; aurltus, having long ears. These are called amplifi- 
catives. 

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

<§) 105. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and are 
either of the first and second declension, or of the third only. 



ADJECTIVES — -'FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 



55 



ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
DECLENSION. 

The masculine of adjectives that belong to the first and second 
declension, ends either in us or cr. Those in us change us into 
a for the feminine, and into um for the neuter. Those in cr 
add a for the feminine, and um for the neuter. The masculine 
in us is declined like dommus ; that in er like gener^ or ager^ 
the feminine always like musa ; and the neuter like regnum. 

Remark. One adjective, satur, -ura, -urum, full, ends in ur, and the 
masculine is declined like gener. 

1. Bonus, good. 

Singular. 

Masc, Fern, 

bo^-nus, bo-na, 

bo-ni, bo^-nsB, 

bo^-no, bo'-nsB, 

bo'-num, bo'-nam, 

bo'-ne, bo'-na, 

bo'-no. bo'-na. 



■N, 
G, 
D, 

Ac. 

V. 

Ah, 



N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 

V. 
Ab. 



bo^-ni, 

bo-n5^-rum, 

bo'-nis, 

bo^-nos, 

bo'-ni, 

bo'-nis. 



PlwaL 
bo^-nae, 
bo-na'-rum, 
bo'-nis, 
bo'-nas, 
bo'-nse, 
bo'-nis. 



JVewt 
bo^-num, 
bo'-ni, 
bo'-no, 
bo'-num, 
bo'-num, 
bo'-no. 

bo'-na, 

bo-n5'-rum, 

bo'-nis, 

bo-na, 

bo-na, 

bo'-nis. 



In like manner decline 
Al'-tus, AzV«. Yi'-diMs, faithful. Lon^-gns, long. 

A-va'-rus, covetous. Im'-pro-bus, wicked. FW-nuSj full. 
'Be-nig'-nus, kind. In-I'-quus, unjust. Tac'-i-tus, silent. 

Like borms are also declined all participles in us. 





2. 


Tener, iender. 
Singular. 






Masc. 


Fern, 


JVeut 


N. 


te'-ner, 


ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-rum, 


G. 


ten'-e-ri, 


ten'-e-rse, 


ten'-e-ri, 


D. 


ten'-e-ro, 


ten'-e-rae, 


ten'-e-ro. 


Ac, 


ten'-e-rum, 


ten'-e-ram, 


ten'-e-rum, 


V. 


te'-ner, 


ten'-e-ra, 


ten'-e-rum, 


Ab. 


ten'-e-ro. 


ten'-e-r^. 


ten'-e-ro. 



5(J 



ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION, 







Plural 




N. 


t€n/-e-ri, 


ten'-e-rsB, 


ten'-e-ra, 


G. 


ten-e-ra^-rum^ 


ten-e-ra^-rum, 


ten-e-ro^-rum^. 


D, 


ten'-e-ris, 


ten/-e-risj 


ten^-e-ris, 


Ac, 


ten'-e-rosy 


ten^-e-ras, 


ten-e-ra, 


F. 


ten^-e-ri, 


ten^-e-rae, 


ten^-e-ra/ 


Ab. 


ten^-e-ris. 


ten^-e-ris. 


ten'-e-ris. 



In like manner are declmed 

As' --per y rough. Gib' -her, crook-hacked. MV-ser, wretched. 
Ce'-ter; the rest. La'-cer, torrt. Pros'-per, prosperous. 

'Ex'-ter, foreign. hi' -her, free. Ba.'-i\ir, full. 

So also seirvifer, and the compounds of gero and fero; as, laniger.- 
bearing wool ; oplfer, bringing help. 

Note. Ceter Q.nd exter sue scarcely used in the nominative singular 
masculine. 

^ 106. The Other adjectives in er (except alter) drop the 
e in declension. 







Piger. slothful 








Singular. 






Masc, 


Fern. 


JVeut 


N. 


pi^-ger, 


pi'.gra,. 


pi'-grum. 


G. 


pi^-gri, 


pi'-grse. 


pi'-gri, 


D. 


pi'-gro, 


pi^-grae. 


pi^-gro, 


Ac. 


pi^-grum 


pi'-gram, 


pi^-grum, 


V. 


pi'-ger, 


pi'-gra, 


pi^-grum. 


Ah. 


pi'-gro. 


pi^-gra. 
Plural. 


pi'-gro. 


N. 


pi'-gri,- 


pi'-grae, 


pi^.gra. 


G, 


pi-gr5'-rumy pi-gra'-rum, 


pi-gro'-rum> 


D. 


pi'-gris, 


pi'.gris. 


pi'-gris, 


Ac. 


pi^-gros. 


pi'-gras. 


pi'-gra, 


F. 


pi-gri, 


pi^-grae. 


pi^-gra. 


Ah. 


pi'-gris. 


pi^-gris. 


pi'-gris. 




In like manner decline 




M'-ger, sick. 


Ma'-cer, lean. 


Sca'-ber, rough. 


A'-ter, black. 


Ni^-ger, black. 


Si-nis'-ter, left. 


Cie' 'her, frequent. 


TuV-chei, fair. 


Te'-ter, foul. 


Gla'-ber, : 


smooth. 


Ru'-ber, red. 


Va'-fer, crafty. 


In'-tg-ger, 


entire. 


Sa'-cer, sacred. 





Dexter, right, has -tra, -trum, or -tera, -terum. 



ADJECTIVES -THIRD DECLENSION. 57 

^ 107, Six adjectives in us, and three in cr, have their 
genitive singular in ius, and the dative in i, in all the genders : — 

Alius, another. Totus, whole. Alter, -tera, -terum, the other. 

Nullus, no one. Ullus, any. Uter, -tra, -trum, which of the two. 

Solus, alone. Unus, one. Neuter, -tra, -iTumy neither. 

To these may be added the other compounds of uter, — namely, uterque^ 
each ; utercumque, uterlibet, and utervis, which of the two you please ; gen. 
utriusque, &c. ; — also, alteruter, one of two ; gen. alterutrius, and sometimes 
alterius utrius ; dat. aUerutri. So alteruterque. 

Example. 

Singular. 

Fern. JVeut. 

u^-na, u'-num, 

u-ni^-us, u-ni'-us, 

u'-ni, u'-ni, 

u'-nam, u'-num, 

u'-na, u'-nura, 

u'-na. u'-no. 
The plural is regular, like that of bonus. 

Remark 1. Mius has aliud in the nominative singular neuter, and 
in the genitive aliuSy contracted for aliius. 

2. Some of these adjectives, in ancient authors, form their genitive and 
dative regularly, like bonus, tener, or piger. 

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

^ 108« Some adjectives of the third declension have three 
terminations in the nominative singular ; some two ; and others 
only one. 

I. Those of three terminations end in er, masc. ; is, fem. ; 
and c, neut. ; and are thus declined : — 





Masc. 


N. 


u-nus, 


G. 


u-ni'-uSj 


D. 


u'-ni, 


Ac. 


u^-num, 


V. 


u'-ne, 


Ab. 


u'-no. 





Acer, sharp. 








Singular. 






Masc, 


Fem. 


JSTeut. 


N. 


a'rcer, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


G. 


a'-cris, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cris, 


D. 


a'-cri, 


a'-cri, 


a'-cri, 


Ac. 


a'-crem, 


a'-crem, 


a'-cre, 


V. 


a'-cer, 


a'-cris, 


a'-cre, 


Ab. 


a'-cri. 


a'-cri. 


a'-cri. 




*See 


§ 15. 





58 ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION. 

Plural. 

N, a'-cres, a'-cres, a'-cri-a, 

6r. a'-ori-um, a'-cri-um, a'-cri-um^ 

D, aG'-ri-bus, ac'-ri-bus, ac'-ri-bus, 

Ac, a'-creSy a'-cres, a^-cri-a, 

V, a^-cres, a^-eres^ a'-cri-a, 

Ah. ac -ri-bus. ac'-ri-bus. ac^-ri-bus. 

In like manner are declined the following only :— 
Al'-a-cer, cheerful. Pa-lus'-ter, marshy. Sil-ves'-ter, woody. 

CBxa'-pes'-teiy of a plain. Fe-des'-teij on foot. Ter-res^-ter. terrestrial^- 
CeV-e-her, famous. Sa-lu'-ber, wholesome. Vol'-u-cer, winged. 

E-ques'-ter, equestrian. 

Celer, swift, has celeris, celere;. gen. celeris, &c. 

Remark 1. The nominative singular mascuhne sometimes ends in 
is, hke the feminine ; as, saluber, or saluhris. 

2. Voliicer has um in the genitive plural. See § 114. 

<§> 109. II. Adjectives of two terminations end in is for the- 
masculine and feminine, and e for the neuter, except compar- 
atives, which end in or and us. 

Those in is, e, are thus declined : — 

Mitis. mild. 
Singular. Plural. 

M.fyF. JV. M.S^F. JV. 

N. mi'-tis, mi'-te, N. mi'-tes, mit'-i-a,* 

G. mi^-tis, mi'-tis^ G. mit'-i-um^* mit'-i-um, 

D. mi'-ti, mi'-ti, i>. miV-i-buSj mit'-i-bus,, 

Ac. mi'-tem, miMe^ Ac. mi'-tes, mit'-i-a, 

V. mi'-tis, mi'-te, V. nii'-tes, mit'-i-a, 

Ab. mi'-ti. mi'-ti. Ab. mit'-i-bus. mit^-i-bus. 

In like manner decline 
Ag'-i-lis, active. Dul'-cis, sweet. In-eol'-u-mis, safe. 

Bre^-vis. shorts For'-tis, brave. Mi-rab'-i-lis, wonderfuL. 

Cru-de'-lis, cruel. Gra'-vis, heavy. Om'-nis, all. 

TreSf three, is declined like the plural of mitis. 

<§) 110.. All comparatives except plus, more ^ are thus de- 
clined :■ — 

Mitior,^ milder. 





Singular. 

M.S^F. 


JV. 


N. 


mit'-i-or,. 


mit^-i-us, 


G. 


mit-i-5'-riSy 


mit-i-o^-ris. 


D. 


mit-i-5'-ri. 


mit-i-o^-ri, 


Ac, 


mit-i-6'-remy 


mit'-i-us, 


V. 


mit'-i-or, 


mit^-i-us, 


Ab, 


mit-i-6'-re, or ri. 


mit-i-o^-re, or ri. 



* Fronounced mish'-e-umj &c». See § 12. 



ADJECTIVES THIRD DECLENSION^ 59 





Plural 






M. ^ F. 


JV. 


N, 


mit-i-o^-res, 


mit-i-o'-ra, 


G, 


mit-i-5'-rum, 


mit-i-o'-rum, 


D. 


mit-i-or^-i-bus, 


mit-i-or^-i-bus, 


Ac, 


mit-i-o^-res, 


mit-i-o'-ra, 


V, 


mit-i-o^-res, 


mit-i-o'-ra, 


Ah. 


mit-i-or'-i-bus. • 


mit-i-or'-i-bus. 



In like manner decline 

AF-ti-or, higher. Fe-lic'-i-or, happier. Pru-den'-ti-or, more jpru- 

Bre'-vi-or, shorter. For^-ti-or, braver. dent. 

-Cru-de'-li-or, more cruel. Gra'-vi-or, heavier. U-be'-ri-or, more fertile. 
Dul'-ci-or, sweeter. 

Plus, more, is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

^JV. M.^'F. JV. 

JV. plus, JV*. plu^-res, plu'-ra, 

G. plu'-ris, G. plu'-ri-um, plu'-ri-um, 

D. , D. plu'-ri-bus, plu'-ri-bus, 

Ac. plus, Jlc. plu^-res, plu'-ra, 

V. ■ , V. -, f 

M. . Ah. plu'-ri-bus. plu'-ri-bus. 

Pluria is very rarely found in the nominative plural neuter. 

<§> 1 1 1 . III. Other adjectives of the third declension have 
but one termination in the nominative singular for all genders, 
^nd they all increase in the genitive.* 



They 


are thus declined : — 








Felix, happy. 






Singular. 








M.k R 


JV. 




N. 


fe'-lix, 


feMix, 




G, 


fe-li'-cis, 


fe-lF-cis, 




D, 


fe-lF-ci, 


fe-lF-ci, 




Ac. 


fe-li'-cem, 


feMix, 




F. 


fe'-lix, 


feMix, 




Ab, 


fe-ir-ce, or ci. 

Plural 


fe-li'-ce, or ci. 




N. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a,t 




G. 


fe-lic'-i-um,t 


fe-lic'-i-um, 




D. 


fe-lic^-i-bus, 


fe-lic'-i-bus, 




Ac. 


fe-li'-ces, 


fe-lic'-i-a, 




F. 


fe-lF-ces, 


fe-lic^-i-a, 




Ah, 


fe-lic'-i-bus. 


fe-lic'-i-bus. 



* Senex, senis, old, had anciently senicis or senecis. 

t Pronounced ye-/2W-e-Mm, &c. See §§ 10, Exc, and 7. 



60 ADJECTIVES OBLIQUE CASESe 

Prsesens, present. 
Singular, 

N. pr3B'-sens, prae'-sens, 

G. prse-sen'-tis, prae-sen^-tis, 

2>. prsB-sen'-ti, prse-sen^-ti, 

Ac, prae-sen^-tem, prge'-sens, 

V. prae^-sens, pras^-sens, 

Ah, prae-sen^-tCj, or ti. pras-sen'-te, or tL< 

Plural. 

N, prae-sen'-tes^ prae-sen^-ti-a,* 

G, prae-sen'-ti-um, prae-sen^-ti-um, 

D, prae-sen^-ti-bus, prae-sen^-ti-bus, 

Ac, prae-sen'-tes, prae-sen'-ti-a, 

V, prae-sen'-tes, prae-sen^-ti-a, 

Ah, prae-sen^-ti^btis. prae-sen'-tT-bus. 

In like manner decline 

Au^-daXj -acis, hold. Par'-ti-ceps, -ipis, par- Sos^-pes, -itis, safe. 

Com' -pos J 'OtiSjinaster of. ticipant. Sup'-plex, -icis, sup* 

Fe'-rox, -ociSy fierce. Prse'-pes, -etis, swift. pliant. 

In'-gens, -tis, huge. So^-lers, -tis, shrewd. 

All present participles are declined like prcesens. 



Rules for the Obliq,ue Cases of Adjectives of the 
Third Declension. 

GENITIVE singular. 

<§j 1 1 2. Most adjectives of the third declension form their 
genitive singular like nouns of the same termination. 

The following may here be specified : — 
Of those in es, 

Some have etis ; as, hebes, dull ; perpes, perpetual ', prcepes^ swift ; and 
teres ^ slender y — {Locuples, rich, has^ etis ;) — 

Some itis; as, dives, rich ; sospes, safe ; and superstes^ surviving ; — 

Some idis ; as, deses, slothful ; and reses, sluggish. 

BipeSj two-footed, and tripes, three-footed, have pedis. 
Compos J master of, and impos, unable, have otis. 
Pernoz, lasting all night, has noctis. 

Ccelebs, unmarried, has ibis; intercus, intercutaneous, utis. 
Those in ceps, compounds of caput, have cipitis ; as, anceps, doubtful j 
prcBceps, headlong. 

Those in cors, compounds of cor, have cordis ; as, concors, agreeing. 

* Pronounced pre-sen'-she-a, &c. 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 61 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

<^113. 1. Adjectives of the third declension, of two or 
three terminations, except comparatives in or, have always i in 
the ablative. 

2. Comparatives, and participles in ns used as participles, 
have rather e than i ; and such participles in the ablative abso- 
lute have always e. 

3. Adjectives of one termination have e or i in the ablative. 

NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE PLURAL. 
The neuter of the nominative plural ends in ia, and the gen- 
itive plural in ium ; but comparatives in or, with vetus^ old, and 
uher, fertile, have a and um. 

Exceptions in the Ablative Singular and Genitive Plural. 

<^ 114. 1. The following adjectives have e in the ablative 
singular, and um in the genitive plural : — 

Bicorpor, two-hodied. Impubes, beardless. Sospes, safe. 

Bipes, tiDO-footed. Juvenis, young. Superstes, surviving. 

Cydlehs J unmarried. Pauper, j^oor. TricoT-por, three-bodied. 

Compos, master of. Princeps, chief Tricuspis, threeforhed. 

Discolor, particolored. Puber, or -es, full-grown. Tripes, three footed. 

Impos, unable. Senex, old. 

2. The following, which have e or i in the ablative singular, 
have um in the genitive plural : — 

Ales, icinged. Dives, rich. Quadruple x,/<32z?/oW. 

Artifex, skilful. Degener, degenerate. Supplex, suppliant. 

Cicur, tame. Impar, unequal. Triceps, three-headed. 

Compar, equal. Inops, poor. Vigil, tcatchful. 

Dispar, unequal. Praepes, swift. 

To these may be added locuples, rich ; sons^ guilty ; and insons, inno- 
cent ; which have 2^m or ium in the genitive plural. FoZ-wcer, winged. 
though its ablative is in i, has um in the genitive plural. 

3. Memor, mindful ; immemor, unmindful ; par, equal ; and uber, fertile. 
have i only in the ablative ; but all, except par, have um in the genitive 
plural. 

Note. The accusative plural of adjectives of the third declension, 
as of nouns, sometimes ends in eis or is, instead of e^. See § 65. 

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 115. Some adjectives are defective, others redundant. 

DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

1. Many adjectives, denoting personal qualities or attributes, 
want the neuter gender, unless when occasionally joined to a 
neuter substantive used figuratively. Such are the following : — 
6 



62 



REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 



Bicorpor, Deg^ner, Inops, 

Bipes, Dives, Insons, 

Caglebs, Impos, Invitus, 

Consors, Impubes, Juvenis, 

Compos, Industrius, Locuples, 



Memor, 

Pauper, 

Particeps, 

Princeps, 

Puber, or -es, Superstes, 



Redux, 
Senex, 
Sons, 



Supplex, 

Tricorpor, 

Vigil. 



Victrix and ultrix are feminine in the singular, seldom neuter ; in the 
plural, they are feminine and neuter. Such verbals partake of the nature 
of substantives and adjectives. They correspond to masculines in tor. 
See § 102, 6. 

2. The following want the genitive plural, and are rarely 
used in the neuter gender : — 

Cmtcolor, deses, hebes^ perpes^ reses, teres, versicolor, 

3. Some adjectives are wholly indeclinable. 

Such are fnigi, temperate ; nequam. worthless ; sat or satis, sufficient ; 
semis, half; the plurals altqiiot, tot, quot, totidem, quotquot ; and the cardi- 
nal numbers from quatiwr to centum inclusive, and also mille. 

4. The following adjectives are used only in certain cases : — 

Billcem, ace. ; dovhhj-tissucd. — pi. plures, -a, nom., ace. ; -ium, 

Cetera, ceterum, the rest, wants the gen. ; ibus, dat., ahl. § 110. 

nam. siiifr. masc. Potis, nom. sing, and pi., all gen- 



Decemplicem, ace. ; tenfold. 

Exspes, nom. ; hopeless. 

Inquies, nom.; -etem, ace. ; -ete, all. ; 

restless. 
Mactus, and macte, nom.; macte, 

ace; increased; — macti, and 

mactae, nom. pi. 
Necesse, and necessum, nom., ace.; 

necessary. 
Plus, nom., ace. ; pluris. gen. ; more ; 



ders; able. 
Pote, nom. sing., for potest ; possible. 
Septemplicis,^ew. ; -ce, ahl. ; seven- 

fold. 
Siremps, nom.; sirempse, abl.; a- 

like. 
Tantundem, nom., ace; tantldem, 

gen. ; so much. 
Trilicem, ace.; trebly-tissued; tri- 

lices, ace. pi. 



REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 116. The following adjectives are redundant in termi- 
nation and declension. Those marked r are more rarely used. 

Acclivis, a7id -us, r, ascending 



Auxiliaris, and -ius, auxiliary. 
Bijugis, and -us, tico-yoked. 
Decllvis, and -us, r, descending. 
Esanimis, and -us, r, lifeless. 
Hilaris, and -us, cheerful. 
Imbecillis, r, and -us, weak. {less. 
Impubes. and -is, -is or -eris, beard- 
Ineiiais, and -us, unarmed. 
Infrenis, ajid -us, unbridled. 
Inquies, and -etus, restless. 
Jocularis, and -ius, r, laughable. 



Opulens, and -lentut, rich. 
Prsecox, -coquis, and -coquus, early 

ripe. 
Procllvis, and -us, r, inclined, down 

wards. 
Quadrijugis, and -us, four-yoked. 
Semianimis, and -us, half -alive. 
Semiermis, and -us, half -armed. 
Semisomnis, and -us, half-asleep. 
Singularis, and -ius, single. 
Subllmis, and -us, r, high. 
Unanimis, r, and -us, unanirrums. 
Violens, r, and -lentus, violent. 



Multijuges, r, and -i (plur.), many- 
yoked. 

To the above may be added some adjectives in er and is ; as, saluber and 
-hris, celeber and -bris. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



63 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



<§> 117. Numeral adjectives are divided into thr^e 
principal classes — Cardinal, Ordinal, and Distributive. 

I. Cardinal numbers are those which answer the question 
' How many?' They are, 



Unus, 




one. 


L 


Duo, 




two. 


11. 


Tres, 




three. 


m. 


Quatuor, 




four. 


fill, or IV. 


Quinque, 




Jive. 


V. 


Sex, 




six. 


VI. 


Septem, 




seven. 


VII. 


Octo, 




eight. 


vm. 


Novem, 




nine. 


vim. or IX. 


Decern, 




ten. 


X. 


Undecim, 




eleven. 


XI. 


Duodecim, 




twelve. 


XII. 


Tredecim, 




thirteen. 


XIII. 


Quatuordecim, 




fourteen. 


XIIII. or XIV. 


Quindecim, 




fifteen. 


XV. 


Sedecim, or sexdecim, 


sixteen. 


XVI. 


Septendecim, 




seventeen. 


XVII. 


Duodeviginti,* 




eighteen. 


XVIIL 


Novendecim, 




nineteen. 


XVIIIL or XIX. 


Viginti, 




twenty. 


XX. 


Viginti unus, or 
unus et viginti, 


\ 


twenty-one. 


XXL 


Viginti duo, or > 
duo et viginti, &c. J 


twenty-two. 


XXII. 


Triginta, 




thirty. 


XXX. 


Quadraginta, 




forty. 


XXXX. or XL. 


Quinquaginta, 




fifty- 


L. 


Sexaginta, 




sixty. 


LX. 


Septuaginta, 




seventy. 


LXX. 


Octoginta, 




eighty. 


LXXX 


Nonaginta, 




ninety. 


LXXXX. or XC. 


Centum, 




a hundred. 


C. 


Centum unus, or 
centum et unus. 


,&c. 5 


a hundred and one. 


CI. 


Ducenti, -ae, -a, 




two hundred. 


CC. 


Trecenti, 




three hundred. 


CCC. 


Quadringenti, 




four hundred. 


CCCC. 


Quingenti, 




five hundred. 


10, or D. 


Sexcenti, 




six hundred. 


IOC, or DC 


Septingenti, 




seven hundred. 


lOCC, or DCC. 


Octingenti, 




eight hundred. 


lOCCC, orDCCC. 


Nongenti, 




nine hundred. 


lOCCCC, or DCCCC. 


Mille, 




a thousand. 


CIO, or M. 



* Ociodecim has no classical auihoriiy. 



64 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



b?s^ille' ^ 5 ^^^ thousand, CIOCID, or MM. 

Quinque millia, or > ^ ^i j t^^v 

quinquies mille, 5 >^ thousand, 100. 

Decern millia, or} ^ .r 7 A>..-iT^r^ 

decies mille, 5 ten thousand, CCIOO. 

^rSuiSiie,}^^^^^^^^^^ I^^O. 

^TenS^e^SllC ] « ^^^^^^^^ ^^-^^^^^- CCCIOOO. 

RemarJ{s» 

J§> 118« 1. The first three cardinal numbers are declined ; 
those from four to a hundred inclusive are indeclinable ; those 
denoting hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus. 

For the declension ofunus and treSy see §§ 107 and 109. 

Duo is thus declined : — 

Plural. 





M. 


F, 


JV. 


JV. 


du^-o, 


du^-ae, 


du'-o, 


G. 


du-o'-rum, 


du-a'-rum. 


du-o'-rmn, 


D. 


du-o'-bus, 


du-a'-bus. 


du-o'-bus, 


Ac. 


du'-os, or du'-o, 


du'-as, 


du'-o, 


V. 


du^-o, 


du'-ae, 


du'-o, 


M, 


du-o'-bus. 


du-a'-bus. 


du-o'-bus. 



Duorum^ duarum, are often contracted into duum^ especially when 
joined with millium. 
Amho, both, is declined like duo. 

2. The cardinal numbers, except unus and miller are used in 
the plural only. 

The plural of unus is used with nouns which have no singular, or 
whose singular has a different sense from the plural ; as, una castra, one 
camp ; uncB cEdes, one house. So also with nouns denoting several things 
considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes. 

3. Thirteen, sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen, are often expressed by 
two numbers united by et; thus, decern et tres, decern et sex^ decern et sep- 
tern, decern et octo ; in which the larger number usually precedes. 

From twenty to a hundred, the smaller number with et is put first, or 
the larger generally without et ; as, unus et viginti, or viginti unu^. Above 
one hundred, the larger precedes, with or without et ; as, centum et unus, 
or centum unus : trecenti sexaginta seXj or trecenti et sexaginta sex. Et is 
never twice used. 

4. For eighteen, twenty-eight, &c., and for nineteen, twenty-nine, &c. 
(excepting sixty-eight and sixty-nine), a subtractive expression is more 
frequent than the additive form ; as, duodeviginti, two from twenty ; un^ 
demginti, one from twenty ; duodetriginta, undetriginta^ &c. Neither un 
(unus) nor duo can be declined in these expressions. 

5. The poets sometimes make use of numeral adverbs in expressing 
small cardinal numbers ; as, bis sex, for duodecim ; Ms centum, for ducenti 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 65 

Numbers above a hundred thousand are always expressed in this way ; 
as, dccies centum millia ; but the cardinal numbers after the adverbs are 
sometimes omitted ; as, dccies centena, i. e. millia ; decies, i. e. centum 
millia. 

G. Mille is used either as a substantive or an adjective. 

When taken substantively, it is indeclinable in the singular number, 
and, in the plural, has millia, millium, millibus, &c. ; as, mille komlnum, a 
thousand men ; duo millia hominum, two thousand men, &c. When 
mille is declined in the plural, the things numbered are put in the geni- 
tive, as in the preceding examples, unless a declined numeral comes 
between ; as, habuit tria 'millia treccntos mil'ites. 

As an adjective. m^Z/c is plural only, and indeclinable ; a.s, mille homines y 
a thousand men ; bis mille hominibus, with two thousand men. 

7. Capitals were used by the Romans to mark numbers. The let- 
ters employed for this purpose were C. I. L. V. X., which are, there- 
fore, called ^Vw/zieraZ Letters. I. denotes OTie; V.Jive; X. ten; 1j. fifty; and 
C. a hundred . Hy the various combinations of these five letters, all the 
c ilFeront numbers are expressed. 

The repetition of a numeral letter repeats its value. Thus, II. signi- 
fies izoa ; \\\. three; XX. ticenty ; XXX. thirty ; QQ.tico hundred, &lq» 
But V. and L. are never repeated. 

When a letter of a less value is placed before a letter of a greater, the 
less takes away what it stands for from the greater ; but being placed 
after, it adds what it stands for to the greater ; thus, 

IV. Four. V. Five. VI. Six. 

IX. Nine. X. Ten. XI. Eleven. 

XL. Forty. L. Fifty. LX. Sixty. 

XC. Ninety, C. A hundred. CX. A hundred and ten. 

A thousand, was marked thus, CIO, which, in later times, was contracted 
into M. Five hundred is marked thus, 10, or, by contraction, D. 

The annexing of O to 10 makes its value ten times greater ; thus, 100 
marks ^?;e thousand; and 1000, fifty thousand. 

The prefixing of C, together with the annexing ofO, to the number 
CIO, makes its value ten times greater; thus, CCIOO denotes ten thou- 
sand; and CCCIOOO, a hundred thousand. The Romans, according 
to Pliny, proceeded no further in this method of notation. If they had 
occasion to express a larger number, they did it by repetition ; thus, 
CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, signified two hundred thousand, &e. 

We sometimes find thousands expressed by a straight line drawn over 

the top of the numeral letters. Thus, III. denotes three thousand; X,, 
ten thousand. 

<§> 119. 11. Or^m«? numbers are such as denote order or 
rank. They all end in us, and are declined like bonus ; as, 
primus, first ; secundus, second. 

in. Distributive numbers are those which indicate an equal 
division among several persons or things ; as, singuli, one by 
one, or each ; bini, two by two, or two to each, 6lc. They are 
declined like the plural of bonus, except that they usually have 
um for orum in the genitive plural. 

The following table contains the ordinal and distributive 
numbers, and the corresponding numeral adverbs : — 
6* 



66 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



1. 
2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 

20.. 

21. 
22. 

30. 

40. 

50. 
60. 
70. 

80. 

90. 
100. 
200. 
300. 

400. 

500. 
600. 
700. 
800. 
900. 

1000. 



Ordinal, 

Primus, Jirst. 

Secundus, second, &c. 

Tertius. 

Quartus. 

Quintus. 

Sextus. 

Septimus. 

Octavus. 

Nonus. 

Decimus. 

Undecimus. 

Duodecimus. 

Tertius decimus. 

Quartus decimus. 

Quintus decimus, 

Sextus decimus. 

Septimus decimus. 

Octavus decimus. 

Nonus decimus. 
', Vicesimus, or > 
[ vigesimus. 3 

Vicesimus primus. 

Vicesimus secundus. 
i Tricesimus, or > 
[ trigesimus. 5 
' Quadragesimus. 

Quinquagesimus. 

Sexagesimus. 

Septuagesimus. 

Octogesimus. 

Nonagesimus. 

Centesimus. 

Ducentesimus. 

Trecentesimus. 

Quadringentesimus. < 

Quingentesimus . 

Sexcentesimus. 

Septingentesimus, 

Octingentesimus. 

Nongentesimus. 

Millesimus. < 



20<30. Bis millesimus. 



Distributive. 

Singuli. 

Bini. 

Ternij or trini. 

Quaterni. 

Quini. 

Seni. 

Septeni. 

Octoni. 

Noveni. 

Deni. 

Undeni. 

Duodeni. 

Terni deni. 

Quaterni deni. 

Quini deni. 

Seni deni. 

Septeni deni 

Octoni deni. 

Noveni deni. 

Viceni. 

Viceni singuli. 
Viceni bini. 

Triceni. 

Quadrageni. 

Quinquageni. 

Sexageni. 

Septuageni. 

Octogeni. 

Nonageni. 

Centeni. 

Duceni. 

Treceni, or trecenteni. 

Quadringeni, or ) 

quadringenteni. 3 
Quingeni. 

Sexceni, or sexcenteni. 
Septingeni. 
Octingeni. 
Nongeni. 
Milleni, or 

singula millia. 
Bis milleni, or ) 

bina millia. 3 



JVumeral Mverhs 

Semel, once. 

Bis, twice. 

Ter, thrice. 

Quater ,/(mr times . 

Quinquies, &c. 

Sexies. 

Septies. 

Octies. 

No vies. 

Decies. 

Undecies. 

Duodecies. 

Terdecies. 

Quaterdecies. 

Quindecies. 

Sedecies. 

Decies et septies. 

Duodevicies. 

Undevicies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies. 
Bis et vicies, &c= 

Tricies. 

Quadragies. 

Quinquagies. 

Sexagies. 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies. 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 

Trecenties. 

Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Noningenties. 

Millies. 
Bis millies. 



Remarks. 

^ 1 Z\j» 1. Instead of primits, prior is used, if two only are spoken 

of. Alter is otien used for secundus. 

2. From thirteen to nineteen, the smaller number is usually put first, 
without ei; a,s, tertius decimus; — sometimes the larger, with or without-e^ ^ 
as, decimus et tertius, or decimus tertius. 

Twenty-first, thirtj'-first, &c., are often expressed by unus et vicesttim^.f 



XDJECTIVES. COMPARISON. '67 

^nus et tricis: f'i'js, tScc; and twenty-second, &c.,by duo, or altei' et tiiccsl- 
mus, &c., in which duo is notc-hangcd. In the other compound numbers, 
the larger precedes without ct, or the smaller with et ; as, vlccsvmus qiuir- 
tus, or quartus tt vlcesimus. 

For eighteenth, &c., to fifty-eighth, and for nineteenth, ifec, to fifty- 
ninth, d.wdeviccsimus, &c., and undevicesimus, &c., are often used. 

3. In tlie distributives, eighteen, thirty-eight, forty-eight, and nineteen 
and twenty-nine, are often expressed by duodevicenij &c., and undeviceniy 
&c. 

4. Distributives are sometimes used by the poets for cardinal numbers ; 
as, bina splcula, two darts. So likewise in prose, with nouns that want the 
singular ; as, hinmnuptice, two weddings. 

The singular of Some distributives is used in the sense of a multiplica- 
tive ; as, hinus, twafold. So ternus, quinus, septenus. 

5. For twenty-eight times and thirty-nine times, duodetricies and undc" 
ijuadragies are found. 

<§)121. To the preceding classes may be added the fol« 
lowing : — 

1. Multiplicdiives, which denote how many fold. They all 
end inpleXy and are declined Yi^iefelix; as, 

Simplex, single. Quadruplex, /o?a7/oZ<^. 

Duplex, twofold, or double. Quincuplex,J^Ke/bZ<Z. 

Triplex, threefold. Centuplex, a hundredfold. 

2. Proportionals^ which denote how many times one thing is 
greater than another ; as, duplus, twice as great ; triplus, quad- 
ruplus, octuplus, decuplus. They are declined like bonus, 

3. Temporals, -which denote time ; as, himus, two years old; 
trimuSy three years old ; quadrimus, &c. Also, biennis^ of two 
years' continuance; quadriennis, quinquennis ^ &c. So bimestrisy 
of two months' continuance; trimestris, 6lc. 

4. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains; as, 
binarius^ of two parts ; ternarius, &/C^ 

5. Interrogatives ; as, quot^ how many t quotus, of what num- 
ber ? quoteni, how many each ? quoties, how many times 2 Their 
correlatives are, tot, totidem, so many; aliquot, some; which, 
with quot, are indeclinable ] toties, so often ; aliquoties, several 
times. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES, 

<§> 122. Adjectives may be divided into two classes — ^those 
which denote a variable, and those which denote an invariable, 
quality or limitation. 

Thus, bonus, good, alius, high, and opdcus, dark, denote variable attri- 
butes ; but ceneus, brazen, triplex, threefold, and diurnus, daily, do not 
admit of different degrees in their signification. 



bo- ADJECTIVES. COMPARISOK^. 

The relations of inferiority, equality, or superiority, which 
different objects bear to each other, in regard to variable quali- 
ties, are expressed in Latin in different ways. 

Inferiority may be denoted by prefixing to an adjective the 
adverbs minuSy less, and mimmh, least ; as, jucundus, pleasant ^ 
minus jitcundus , less pleasant; mimme jucundus, least pleasant, 

A small degree of a quality is indicated by sub prefixed to 
an adjective ; as, difficilis, difficult ; suhdifficilis, somewhat 
difficult. 

Equality may be denoted by tam followed by qudm ; ceque 
followed by ac, ^^c. ; as,, hehes ceque ac pecus^ as stupid as a 
brute. 

<§> 123. The relation of superiority, to which alone the 
name of comparison is commonly applied, is denoted either by 
prefixing to an adjective certain adverbs or prepositions, or by 
peculiar terminations. Various degrees of superiority are de- 
noted with different degrees of precision, by the prepositions 
per and pr^B prefixed to adjectives, and by difierent adverbs, and 
other qualifying clauses. The terminational comparison, and 
its equivalent form, expressed by the adverbs magis, more, and 
maxtme, most, prefixed to the adjective, denote not a precise, 
but only a relative, degree of superiority. 

That form of an adjective which simply denotes a quality, 
without reference to other degrees of the same quahty, is 
called the positive degree; as, altus, high; mitis, mild. 

The degrees of relative superiority are two- — the com- 
parative and the superlative. 

The comparative denotes that the quahty belongs to one 
of two objects, or sets of objects, in a greater degree than to 
the other ; as, altior, higher ; mitior, milder. 

The superlative denotes that the quality belongs to one 
object, or set of objects, in a greater degree than to any of 
the rest ; as, altissimus, highest ; mitissmus, mildest. 

Remarks. 

1. The comparative is also used to denote that, at dijBTerent times, or in 
different circumstances, a quality belongs to the same object in different 
degrees ; as, est sapientior qicam olim fuit, he is wiser than he was for- 
merly. 

2. The comparative sometimes expresses the proportion between two 
qualities of the same object ; as, est doctior quam sapientior, he is more 
learned than wise ; that is, his learning is greater than his wisdom. 



ADJECTIVES. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



69 



Masc. Fern. Neut 

§ 1 24, The terminational ) . 

^ ^' 1 . } 2or, tor, lus ; 

comparative ends m ) ' ' 

the terminational superlative in issimus, issima, issimum. 

These terminations are added to the root of the positive ; as, 
alius, altior, a//issimus ; high, higher, highest. 
mitis, mitior, Tw^issimus; mild, milder, mildest. 

felix, gen. felicis,feIicior,felicissimus; happy, happier, happiest 

In like manner compare 

Arc'-tus, strait, Ca'-rus, dear. Cle'-menSj^en. -tis, merciful. 

Ca'-pax, capacious. Cru-de^-lis, cruel. In^-ers, gen. -tis, sJMggish. § 23. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

*§> 125. 1. Adjectives in er form their superlative by adding 
rimus to that termination ^ as, acer^ active ; gen. ac?'is ; compar- 
ative, acrior; superlative, acemmus. 

In like manner paup&i', pauperrlmus. Vetus has a similar superlative, 
^eterrvmus, as if from veter. 

2. Seven adjecti'ves in Us form their superlative by adding 
Itmus to the root : — 



Facilis, 

Difficilis, 

Gracilis, 

Humilis, 

Imbecillis, 

Similia, 

Dissimilis, 



facilior, 

difficilior, 

graeilior, 

humilior, 

imbecillior, 

similior^ 

dissimilior, 



facillimus, 

difficillTmus, 

gracillimus, 

humillimus, 

imbecillimus, 

siraillimus, 

dissimillimus, 



difficult. 

slender. 

low. 

weak. 

like. 

unlike. 



3. Five adjectives in ftcus derive their comparatives and 
superlatives from obsolete adjectives in ens r — 



Beneficus, 

Honorificus, 

Magnificus, 

Munificus, 

Maleficus, 



beneficentiar, 
honorificentior, 
magnificentior, 
munificentiar^ 



beneficentissimus, 

honorificentissimus, 

magnificentissimus, 

muniiicentissimusL, 

maleficentissimus, 



beneficent. 

honorable. 

splendid. 

liberal. 

hurtful. 



Adjectives in dicens a,ndvolcns form their comparatives and superlatives 
regularly j but instead of those positives, forms in dicu^ and volus are 
more common j as, 

Benevolens, or benevolus, benevolentior, benevolentissimus, benevolent. 
4. These five have regular comparatives, but irregular super- 



latives : — 








Dexter, 
Extexa, (Jem.) 


dexterior, 
exterior, 


dextimus, 

extimus, or extremus. 


right, 
outward. 



7a 



ABJirCTIVES. DEFECTIVE CGMFARISOm 



PostSra, {fern.) posterior, 
Inferus, inferior, 

SupSrus, superior, 



postremus, or postumus, hind. 
inf imus, or imus, low. 

supremus, or summus, high. 

The nominative singular of poster a does not occur in the masculine j. 
and that of exUra wants good authority. 

5. The following are very irregular in comparison : — 



Bonus, 

Mains, 

Magnus, 

Parvus, 

Multus, 

Multa, 

Multum, 

Nequam, 

Frugi, 



melior, 
pejor, 
major, 
minor, 



plus,* 

nequior, 

frugalior, 



optimus, 
pessimus,. 
maximus, 
minimus, 
plurimus, ^ 
plurima, > 
plurimum, 3 
nequissimus, 
frugal issimus, 



good, 
had, 
great, 
little, 

much. 



better, 
worse, 
greater, 
less, 



best, 
worst. 



least. 



most. 



worthless, 
frugal. 



All these form their comparatives and superlatives from obsolete adjec- 
tives, except magnum, whose regular forms are contracted. 



DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
<§ 126« 1. Seven adjectives want the positive :— 



Citerior, citimus, nearer. 
Deterior, deterrlmus, worse. 
Interior, intimus, inner. 
Ocior, ocissimus, swifter >. 



Prior, primus, /ormcr. 
Propior, proximus, nearer. 
Ulterior, ultimus, farther. 



% Eight want the terminational comparative : — 

Consultus, consultissimus, skilful. Par, parissimus, equal. 

Falsus, falsissimus,/aZ5€. Persuasus, persuasissTmum (neu- 
Inclytus, inclytissimus, renowned. ter), persuaded. 

Invictus, invictissimus, invincible. Sacer, sacerrimus, 5acre(?. 
Meritus, meritissimus (rarely used), 
deserving. 

3. Eight have very rarely the terminational comparative : — 

AprlcTis, apricissimus, sunmj. Fidus, fidisslmus,/«^^A/'MZ. 

Bellus, bellissimus, Jine. Invltus, invitissimus, unwilling.. 

Comis, comissimus, courteous. Novus, novissimus, new.. 

Diversus, diversissimus, different. Yetus, veterrimus, old. 

4. The following want the terminational superlative \- — 

Adolescens, adolescentior, > ^ Ingens, ingentior, great. 

Juvenis, junior, ) ^ ^* * Licens, licentior, extravagant. 



AMcer, alacrior, active. 
Coecus, coecior, blind. 
Diuturnus, diuturnior, lasting. 
Jejunus, ieivimor, fasting. 
Infinitus, infinitior, unlimited. 



Longinquus, longinquior, distant^ 
Opimus, opimior, rich. 
Proclfvis, ^xocWyiqt,}^ inclined 
Pronus, pronior, 3 downicards^ 



* See (S 110. 



ABJECTIVES. COMPARISON, 71 

Fropinquus, propinquior, neighbor- Senex, senior, old. 

ing. Silvester, or silvestris, silve^trior, 
Salutaris, salutarior, salutary. woody. 

Satis, sufficient ; satius, preferable. Sinister, sinisterior, left. 

Satur, saturior,/wiZ. Suplnus, supinior, lying on the hack. 

The superlative of juvenis and adolescens is supplied by minimus natu, 
youngest ; and that of senex by maximus natUj oldest. The comparatives 
minor natu and major natu sometimes also occur. 

Most adjectives also in ilis, dlis, and bllis, and many in anus, vvis, and 
inquuSj have no terminational superlative. 

5. Many adjectives have no terminational comparative or su- 
perlative. Such are, 

(a.) Adjectives in bundus, imuSy inuSf orus, most in ivus, and those in 
us after a vowel (except quus). Yet assiduusy egregius, exiguus, pius, 
strenuus, and vacuus ^ are sometimes compared by change of termination, 

(6.) The following — almus, calvus^ canus, cicur, clauduSj degener, ddlrus 
dispar, egenus, impar, invidus, lacer, memor, mirus, prceditus, prcecox^ ru- 
disy salvus, sospes, vulgaris^ and some others. 

<§> 127. The comparative and superlative may also be 
formed by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and 
maxime, most; as, idoneus^fit; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 

Valde, imprimis, apprime, admodum, &c., and the prepositions 
prcB and per, and sometimes j^erg^waw, prefixed to an adjective, 
denote a high degree of the quality. 

The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing etiam, 
even, or yet ; and that of both comparative and superlative, by 
prefixing longe, or multd, much, far ; as, longe nobilissimus, 
longe melior ; iter multd facilius, multd maxima pars. 

Quam before the superlative renders it more emphatic ; as, 
qudm doctissimus, extremely learned ; qudm celerrtme, as speedily 
as possible. 

AH adjectives vt^hose signification admits of different degrees, 
if they have no terminational comparison, may be compared by 
means of adverbs. 

Instead of the comparative and superlative degrees, the posi- 
tive, with the prepositions prcB, ante, prceter, or supra, is some- 
times used; as, ^r<^ nobis beatus (Cic), happier than we; ante 
alias pulchritudineinsignis (Liv.), most beautiful. Sometimes 
the preposition is used in connection with the superlative ; as, 
ante alios pulcherrimus omnes (Virg.) 

Among adjectives which denote an invariable quality or 
limitation, and which, therefore, cannot be compared, are those 
denoting matter, time, number, possession, country, part, inter- 
rogation ; also compounds oijugum, somnus, gero, and/ero, and 
many others. 



72 



ADJECTIVES. DERIVATION^. 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 



§ 128. Derivative adjectives are formed chiefly froiK 
nouns, from other adjectives, and from verbs. 

I. Those derived from nouns and adjectives are called 
denominatives. The following are the principal classes : — 

1. The termination ens, added to the root, denotes the ma- 
terial of which a thing is made ; as, aureus, golden ; argenteus, 
of silver ; ligneus, wooden ; vitreus, of glass ; from aurum^ 
argentum, &c. 

The termination mus has sometimes the same meaning ; as, 
adamantxnuSy of adamant ; cedrinus, of cedar ; from addmas 
and cedrus. 

The termination eus is found only in possessives of Greek 
origin : as, Achilleus, of Achilles ; Sophacleus, &.e. 

2. The terminations aZ/5, dris, His, atilis, ictus, icizSyiuSySind 
Inus, denote belonging or relating to ; as, capitdlis, relating to 
the life ; from caput. 

So comitidlis, regalis ; Apollindris, consuldris, populdris ; civilis, hostilisy 
juvenilis; aquatilis,flumattlis; tribunicius,patricius ; belUcus, civicus, Ger-- 
manicus ; accusatorius, imperatorius, r'eglus ; canlnus, equinus, ferinus ; 
from comitia,rex, Apollo, consul, populus, civis, &c. 

The termination ilis sometimes expresses character ; as, 
hostllis, hostile ; puerilis, boyish ; from hostis and puer. 

3. The termination arius generally denotes profession or oc- 
cupation ; as, argentarius, a silversmith ; from argentum ; — 
coriarius, statuarius; from corium and statua. When added ta 
numeral adjectives, it denotes how many parts a thing con- 
tains. See § 121^ 4. 

Some of this class are properly substantives. 

4. The terminations osus and lentus denote abundance, ful- 
ness; as, «mmdsM5, full of courage ; /raw JwZe7ifw5, given to fraud; 
from animus and fraus. So lapidosus, vinosus, turbulentus^ 
violentus. Before lentus, a connecting vowel is inserted, which 
is commonly u. 

Adjectives of this class are called amplificatives. See § 104, 13. 

5. From adjectives are formed diminutives in the same man- 
ner as from nouns ; as, dulciculus, sweetish ; duriusculus, some- 
what hard ; from dulcis and durus. So lentulus, misellus, par- 
vulus, &c. See § 100, 3, and § 104, 12. 

6. From the names of places, and especially of towns, are 
derived adjectives in ensis, inus, as, and anus, denoting of or 
belonging to such places. 



ADJECTIVE-;. DERIVATION. 73 

Thus from Alhcinc is foriued Atheivensis, Atlieniiin ; froin Cunmc. Can- 
ncnsls. In like manner, from castra and circus come castrensiSy cirrens's. 

Tliose in irius are formed from names of places ending- in ia and iuin ; 
•eiS, A r Ida y Ariciniis ; Caiidium, Caudinus ; Capitoliarn, Cajjitollniis; Latium, 
Latiuus. Some names of towns, of Greek origin, with other terminations, 
also form adjectives in inns ; as, Tarentuin, Tarentlnus. 

Most of those in as are formed from nouns in um ; some from nouns in 
rt ; as, Arplnum^ Arpinas ; Capena, Capenas. 

Those in dtius are formed from names of towns of the first declension, 
or from certain common nouns; as, Alba, Alhdnus ; Roma, Romdnus ; 
CuincB, Cumdnus ; Thcbce, Thebdnus ;—fons, fontdmis ; mons, montdnus ; 
urbsy urbdnus. 

Adjectives with the termination anus are also formed from 
names of men ; as, Sulla, Sulldnus; Tullius, Tullidnus. 

Names of towns in polls form adjectives in politdnus ; as, 
Neapolis, Neapolitdnus, 

Greek names of towns generally form adjectives in ius ; as, 
Rhodus, Rhodius ; Lacedcemon, LacedcBmonius ; — but those in 
a form them in cbus ; as, Larissa, Larissceus ; Smyrna, Smyr- 
ncBus. 

7. A large class of derivative adjectives, though formed from 
nouns, have the terminations of perfect participles. They 
generally signify zz?e<2rm^ ox furnished with ; as, 

aldtus, winged ; barbdtus, bearded ; galedtus, helmeted ; auritus, long- 
eared ', turritus, turreted ; cornutus, horned ; from ala, barba, galea, 
auris, &c. 

*§) 129. II. Adjectives derived from verbs are called verbal 
adjectives. Such are the following classes : — 

1. The termination hundus, added to the first root of the 
verb, with a connecting vowel, which is commonly that of the 
verb, has the general meaning of the present participle ; as, 

errabundus. moribundus, from erro, morior, and equivalent to errans. 
moriens. In many the meaning is somewhat strengthened ; as, gratula- 
bundus, full of congratulations ; lacrimabundus, weeping profusely. 

Most verbals in bundus are from verbs of the first conjugation, a feiv 
from those of the third, and but one from the second and fourth re- 
spectively. 

Some verbal adjectives in cundus have a similar sense ; as, rubicundus. 
verecundus, from rubeo and vereor. 

2. The termination ulus^ added to the root, especially of 
neuter verbs, denotes the quality or state expressed by the 
verb ; as, 

algidus, cold ; calidus, warm : inadidus, moist ; rapidus, rapid ; from 
algeo, caleo, madeo, rapio. 

3. The termination bills, added to the root of a verb, with 
its connecting vowel, denotes passively, capability, or desert ; as, 

amabilis, worthy to be loved ; credibilis, deserving credit ; jdacahilis, easy 
to be appeased ; from amo, credo, p'aco. 



74 ADJECTIVES. COMPOSITION. 

In adjectives of this form, derived from verbs of the third conjugation, 
the connecting vowel is i y sometimes also in those from verbs of the second 
conjugationj i is used instead of e ; as, korribilis, terrihilis, from horreo 
and terreo. 

This termination is sometimes added to the third root, with a change of 
u into i; diS , flexibilis , coctihilis, sensibilis, from flecto (Jiexu), &c. 

4. The termination ilis, added either to the first root of a 
verb, or to the third root, after u is removed, has usually a pas- 
sive, but sometimes an active sense ; as, 

agilis, active ; flexilis, easy to be bent ; ductilis, ductile ; sutilis, sewed ', 
coctilis, baked ; fertilis, fertile ; from ago^ &c. 

^ 5. The termination ictus or itius, added to the third root of 
the verb, after u is removed, has a passive sense, as Jictitius, 
feigned ; conductitius , to be hired ; supposiiitius, substituted, 
ixova Jingo {jictu), &c. 

6. The termination ao:, added to the root of a verb, denotes an 
inclination, often one that is faulty ; as, audax, audacious ; lo- 
quax, talkative ; rapax, rapacious ; from audeo, loquor, rapio. 

§ 130. III. Adjectives derived from participles, and re- 
taining their form, are called participials ; as, amans, fond 
of: doctus, learned. 

IV. Some adjectives are derived from adverbs, and are called 
adverhials ; as, crasthius, of to-morrow ; hodiernus, of this day ; 
from C7'as and hodie. 

V. Some adjectives are derived from prepositions, and may 
be called prepositionals ; as, contrarius, contrary, from contra ; 
posterus, subsequent, from post. 

COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

<§> 131. Compound adjectives are formed variously : — 

1. Of two nouns; as, capripes, goat-footed — of caper and 
pes ; ignicomus, having fiery hair — of ignis and coma. 

2. Of a noun and an adjective ; as, noctivdgus, wandering in 
the night — of nox and vagus. 

3. Of a noun and a verb ; as, cornigcr, bearing horns — of 
cornu and gero ; letifer, bringing death — of letum and fero. 
So carnivorus, causidicus, ignivonius, lucifugus, particeps. 

4. Of an adjective and a noun ; as, cequcevus, of the same 
age — of mquus and cevum; celeripes, swift-footed — of celer and 
pes. So centimdnus, decennis, magnamraus, misericors, unan- 
ti/iis. 

5. Of two adjectives ; as, centum gemmus, having a hun- 
dred arms ; multicdvus, having many cavities. 



PRONOUNS. 75 

6. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, breviloquens, speaking 
briefly — of brevis and loquor; magnificus, magnificent — of mag- 
nus Q.ndfacio. 

7. Of an adjective and a termination ; as, qualiscunquey 
quotcimquCf uterqiie. 

Remark. When the former part of the compound is a noun 
or adjective, it usually ends in i. If the second word begins 
with a vowel, an elision takes place; as, magnanimus — of mag- 
nus and animus. 

8. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, hicorpor, two-bodied — of his 
and coipus. 

9. Of an adverb and an adjective ; as, mal((fidus, unfaith- 
ful ; malesdnus, insane. 

10. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, heneficus, beneticent — of 
bene a^ndfacio; malevolus, malevolent — of male and volo. 

11. Of a preposition and a noun; as, amens, mad — of « and 
mens. So consors, decolor, deformis, implumis, inermis. 

12. Of a preposition and an adjective ; as, concdvus, con- 
cave ; infldus, unfaithful. So improvidus, percdrus, prcBdives, 
sitbalbidus. 

13. Of a preposition and a verb ; as, co7i^mMW5, continual — of 
con and teneo; inscius, ignorant — of in and scio. So prcBcipuus, 
promiscuus,. superstes. 

Remark. When the former part is a preposition, its final consonant is 
sometimes changed, to adapt it to that which follows it ; as, imprudens — 
of in and prudens. 

PRONOUNS. 

<§) 132. A pronoun is a word which supplies the place 
of a noun. 

There are eighteen simple pronouns : — 

Ego, /. Hie, this or he. Suus, his, hers, itSy &c. 

Tu, thou. Is, that or he. Cujus ? whose ? 

Sui, of himself, &c. Quis ? icho ? Noster, our. 

Ille, that or he. Qui, who. Vester, your. 

Ipse, himself. Mens, my. Nostras, of our country. 

Iste, that or he. Tuus, thy. Cujas ? of tohat country? 

Three of these — ego, tu, and sui — are substantives ; the re- 
maining fifteen, and all the compound pronouns, are adjectives. 

Ego and tu are a species of appellatives of general application. Ecro is 
used by a speaker, to designate himself; tu,Xo designate the person whom ' 
he addresses. Ego is of the first person, tu of the second. 



76 



SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 



Sui is also a general appellative, of the third person, and has always a 
reflexive signification. The oblique cases of ego and tu are also used re- 
flexively, when the subject of the proposition is of the first or second 
person. 

The remaining pronouns are adjectives, as they serve to limit the mean- 
ing of substantives ) and they are pronouns, because, like substantive 
pronouns, they may designate any object in certain situations or circum- 
stances. 

Menis, tuus, suus, noster, vester, and nostras, have the same extent of sig- 
nification as the substantive pronouns from which they are derived, and are 
equivalent to the genitive cases of those pronouns. 

Pronouns, like substantives and adjectives, are declined ; but 
they all want the vocative, except tu, mcus, noster, and nostras, 
Sui also, from the nature of its signification, wants the nomina- 
tive in both numbers. 

The substantive pronouns take the gender of the objects which 
they denote. The adjective pronouns, like adjectives, have 
three genders. 



SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§) 133. The substantive pronouns are thus declined :- 
Singular. 
N, e'-go, /. tu, thou. 



D. mi^-hi, io nie. 
Ac. me, me. 

V. 

Ah. me, icitJi me. 



tu'-i, of thee. 

tib'-i,* to tliee. 
te, thee. 
tu, O thou. 
te, with thee. 



{ su^-i, of himself y her- 
\ self itself. 

sib^-i,'^ to himself, &/C. 

se, himself, &c. 

se, with himself, Slc. 



N. nos, we. 

r^ (nos^-trum ) r 

\ or nos^-tri, S 
D. no'-bis, to us. 
Ac. nos, us. 

V. 

Ab. no'-bis, ivith us. 



Plural. 

vos, 7/e or i/ou. — 

vesMrumor) y- ^^,_. . themselves. 

ves'-tri, S ^ 

vo'-bis, to you. sib'-i, to themselves. 

vos, you. se, themselves. 

vos, O ye or you. 
vo'-bis, with you. 



se, with themselves. 



Remarlcs, 

1. Mihi is very rarely contracted into mi. So 7nin' for mihtne, Pers. 

2. The syllable met is sometimes annexed to the substantive pronoOis, 
in an intensive sense, either with or without ipse ; as, egomet, I myself j 



* See § 18, 2. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



77 



mihimet ipsi, for myself. It is not annexed, however, to the genitives plural, 
nor to tu in the nominative or vocative. In these cases of tUy tute or 
tutemet is used. In the accusative and ablative, tete in the singular, and 
sese in both numbers, are employed intensively. Mepte, med, and ted^ for 
me and te, and tis for tui, occur in the comic writers. 

3. JVostrujn and vestrum are contracted from nostrorum, nostrdrum^ and 
vestrorum, vcstrdrum. 

4. The preposition cum is affixed to the ablatives of these pronouns in 
both numbers ; as, mecum.j nohiscuirij &.c. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 134. Adjective pronouns may be divided into the 

following classes : — demonstrative, intensive, relative^ inter- 
rogative, indefinite, possessive, and patrial. 
Note. Some pronouns belong to two of these classes. 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative pronouns are such as specify what object 
is meant. 

They are ille, iste, hie, and is, and their compounds, and are 
thus declined : — 



Singular. 

M. R M 

N. ilMe, iMa, ilMud, 

G. il-li^-us,* il-li^-us, il-li^-us, 

JD, iF-li, il'-li, il'-Ii, 

Ac. iP-liim, iP-lam, il'-lud, 

F. 



Ab. iP-lo. 



iF-la. ilMo. 



Plural. 

M F. M 

ilMi, iF-lse, ilMa, 

il-lo^-rum, il-la^-rum^ il-lo'-runa 

iP-lis, iF-lis, ir-lis, 
iF-los, iF-las, 



iF-lis. 



ilMis. 



Singular. 

M. F. M 

N. hie, hgec, hoc, 

G. hu'-jus, hu^-jus, hu^-jus, 

D. huicjt huic, huic, 

Ac. hunc, hanc, hoc, 

V. 



Iste is declined like ille. 



Ab. hoc. 



hac. 



hoc. 



Plural 
F. 

hi, hae, 

ho^-rum, ha'-rum, ho'-rum, 
his, his, his, 

hos, has, hsec, 



hsec, 



his. 



his. 



his. 



See § 15. 

7* 



t Pronounced hike. See } 9. 



78 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Singular. 
M, R M 
N. is, e'-a, id, 
G. e'-jus, e^-JLis, e'-jus, 
D. e^-i, e^-i, e'-i, 
Ac, e'-um, e^-am, id, 

F. 

Ah e'-o, e^-a. e^-o. 



e-o'-rura. 



Plural 
F. 

e*a'-rumy 



jsn 

e'-a, 
e-o'-rum. 



i'-is or e'-is, i^-is or e'-is, i^-is or e'-'m, 

e'-os, e'-as, e'-a, 



i'-isore-is. i*is or e'-is, i'-is o?'e^-isv 



Remarks, 

1. Instead of ille, ollus was anciently used; whence olli in Virgil. HIcBj 
fern., for illius and illi, is found in Lucretius at>d Cato, as also h(2c for h(B 
in Plautus and Terence. Eii for ei, im for eu7}i. and ibus and iibus for iis^ 
occur in Plautus ; and e^g, fem.^ for ei, and cft6//5 for i7^, in Cato. 

2. From ccce, lo ! and the accusative of iilf, i^te. and ^5, are formed eccil- 
luniy eccUlam, eccillud, eccum. eccam, ifec. in hMAi numbers. Eccilluvi is 
sometimes contracted into ellum. Erca, nom. i'eni..also occurs. 

3. Istic and illic are compounded of iMe hie. and ille hie. The former 
sometimes retains the aspirate, as istkic. They are niore emphatic than ille 
and isle, 

Istic is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural, 

%. F. .Y. M. F. 

JV. ist^c, ist'-cec, ist'-oC; cr ist'-uc. 

^c. ist'-unc^ ist'-anc, ist'-oc, or ist^-uc, 
^6b. ist'-oc. ist'-ac. ist'-oc. 

Elic is declined in the same manner. 

4. CBj intensive, is sometimes added to tiie several cases of kic. and 
rarely to some cases of the other demonstrative pronouns ; as, hujuscc^ 
hosce, kasce^kisce ; illdce, istdce, ejusre, istoicce^iisce. When no, interroga- 
tive, is also annexed, cc becomes ci ; as, JKEccine^ koscrneyhisclne ; istuccine^ 
istaccine, isto seine ; illicclne, illanccine. 

5. To the genitives singular of the demonstrative and relative pronouns, 
modi^ the genitive of modus, is often annexed, either with or without an 
intervening particle ; as, hujusmodi, or hujuscemodi, of this sort ; cujus 
modi, <&c. 



ist'-aec. 



6. De7n is annexed to is 
thus declined : — 



, forming idem, the same, which ia 
Singular, 





M. 


F. 


JV. 


JV. 


i'-dem, 


e'-S-dem, 


i'-dem. 


G. 


e-jus'-dem, 


e-jus'-dem, 


e-jus'-dem 


n. 


e-I'-dem, 


e-i'-dem, 


e-I'-dem, 


Ac. 


e-un'-dem. 


e-£in'-dem, 


i'-dem, 


V. 
Ah. 








e-o'-dem. 


e-a'-dem. 


e-o'-dem. 



INTENSIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNSv 79 

Plu7^aL 

M. F. JV. 

JV. i-I'-dem, e-oe'-dem, e'-S-dem, 

G. e-o-run'-dem, e-a-run'^-dem, e-o-run'-dem, 

jy C e-is'-dem, or '> C e-is'-dem, or ) C e-is'-dem, or 

\ i-is'-dem, ) C i-is'-dem, ) i i-is'-dem, 

^c. e-os'-dem, e-as'-dem, e^-^-dem, 

V. — 

^, C e-is'-dem, or ) C e-is'-dem, or^ C e-is'-dem, or 

( i-is'-dem. ) ( i-is'-dem. 3 i i-is'-dem. 

Note. In compound pronouns, m before d is changed into w; as, ettii- 
deniy &c. 

INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 135. Intensive pronouns are such as serve to render 
an object emphatic. 

To this class belong ipse, and the intensive compounds 
already mentioned. §§ 133, 2, and 134, 4 
Ipse is thus declined : — 

Singular, Plural. 

M, F. M M. R M 



N. ip'-se, ip'-sa, ip'-sum, 
G. ip-si'-us, ip-si'-us, ip-si'-us, 
D. ip'-si, ip'-si, ip^-si, 
Ac. ip'-sum, ip^-sam, ip'-sum, 

V, 

^6.ip'-so. ip'-sa. ip'-so. 



ip'-si, ip'-sae, ip'-sa, 

ip-so'-rum, ip-sa^-rum, ip-s6'-rum, 
ip'-sis, ip'-sis, ip'-sis, 
ip'-sos, ip'-sas, ip'-sa, 



ip'-sis. ip'-sis. ip'-sis. 



Remarks. 

1. Ipse is commonly subjoined to nouns or pronouns ; as, Jupiter ipse^ 
tu ipse, Jupiter himself, &c. 

2. A nominative ipstts, and a superlative ipsissimus, his very self, are 
found in comic writers. 

3. The compounds eapse, eampse, and reapse, are contracted for ed ipsd, 
earn ipsam, and re ipsd. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

^ 136. Relative pronouns are such as relate to a pre- 
ceding noun. 

They are qui, who, and the compounds quicunque and quis- 
quis, whoever. 

In a general sense, the demonstrative pronouns are often relatives ', but 
the name is commonly appropriated to those above specified. They serve 



8a 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



to introduce a proposition, limiting or explaining a preceding noun, to whiel 
they relate, and which is called the antecedent. 

Qui is thus declined : — 





Singular, 






Plural 






M, F. 


;v: 


M. 


F. 


M 


N. 


qui, quae. 


quod. 


qui. 


quffi. 


quae, 


D. 


cu'-jus, cu'-jus, 
cui,* cui. 


cu^us, 
cui. 


quo'-rum, 
qui^-bus. 


qua^-rum, 
qui^-bus. 


quo'-rum^ 
qui'-bus. 


Ac, 
V. 


quern, quam, 


quod. 


quos. 


quas. 


quae. 



Ab, quo. qua. 



quo. 



qui^-bus. qui'-bus. qui'-bus. 



RemarJcs, 

1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular, in all genders, and 
rarely for the ablative plural. To the ablatives quo, qud, and qui, cum i& 
sometimes annexed ; but it is usually placed before the ablative plural. 

2. Quels and quis are sometimes used in the dative and ablative plural 
for quibus. Cujus and cui were anciently written quoju^ and quoi. 

Quicunque, or quicumque, is declined like qui. 

Qui is sometimes separated from cunque, by the interposition of one or 
more words. 



Quisquis is thus declined 


:— 




Singular. 




Plural. 


M. F. 


JV. 


M. 


JV. quis^-quis, quis'-quis, 


quid^-quid, 


JV. qui'-qui, 


£c. quem'-quem, 


quid'-quid, 


D. qui-bus'-qui-bus 


M. quo'-quo. qua'-qua. 


quo'-quo. 





Note. Quicquid is sometimes used for quidquid. Quiqui for quisquis 
occurs in Plautus. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 137. Interrogative pronouns are such as serve to 
inquire which of a number of objects is intended. 
They are 



olS^nam ? \ ^^^ -^ ^^«« ^ Acquis .? 



Quisnam ? 3 



Cujus ? whose 7 



Q^- p ^ Ecquisnam .? > is any one 7 Cujas .? of what 

Quinam ? s ^^*^^ ^ ^^^^ ^ Numquis ? ) country 7 

1. Quis is used substantively ; qui, adjectively. Qui is de- 
clined like qui the relative. 



* Pronounced ki» See §9. 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



81 



Quis is thus declined : — 







Singular, 






M. 


F. 


JV. 


N. 


quis, 


quae, 


quid, 


G. 


cu^-jus 


cu'-jus, 


cu'-jus 


D. 


CUl, 


CUl, 


CUl, 


Ac. 


quern, 


quam, 


quid, 


V 









Ah. quo. qua. 



quo. 



Plural, 

M, F. j\r, 

qui, quae, quae, 

quo'-rum, qua'-rum, quo'-rum, 

qui^-bus, qui^-bus, qui'-bus, 

quos, quas, quae, 



qui'-bus. qui'-bus. qui'-bus. 



Remarks on quis and qui. 

(a.) Quis is sometimes used by comic writers ii;i the feminine, and even 
in the neuter. So also quisnam , quisque and quisquam occur as feminine. 

(b.) Qui is used for thfe ablative of quis and qui^ in all genders, as it is for 
that of the relative qui. 

(c.) Quis and qui have sometimes the signification of indefinite pronouns 
(some one. any one), especially after cc, sij we, nisi, num, quo, quanto, and 
quum. They are also occasionally used in the sense of qualis ? what sort ? 

2. The compounds gm'swam and quinam have the signification 
and declension of quis and qui respectively. 

3. Ecquis and numquis, or nunquis, are declined and used 
like quis. 

But ecqua is sometimes found in the nominative singular feminine ; and 
the neuter plural of nunquis is nunqua. 

Ecqui and nunqui also occur, declined like the interrogative qui, and, 
like that, used adjectively. 

4. Ecquisnam is declined like ecquis ; but it is found only in 
the singular ; — in the nominative in all genders, and in the abla- 
tive masculine. 

5. Cujus is also defective: — 







Singtdar. 




Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


F. 


Ac. 


cu'-jus, 


cu'-ja. 


cu^-jum, 


JV. cuyaB, 
Ac. cu'-jas. 








M. 




cu'-ja. 







6. Cujas is declined like an adjective of one termination ; 
cujas, cujdtis. It is found in the genitive and accusative sin- 
gular, and the nominative plural. 

Note. The interrogative pronouns are sometimes used, in dependent 
clauses, when there is no question. They are then called indefinites ; as, 
nescio quis sit, I know not who he is. Qui, in this sense, is found for 
^juis ; as, qui sit aperit, he discloses who he is. 



82 



INDEFINITE PRQNOUNS, 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 



<§) 138. Indefinite pronouns are 
ject, in a general manner, without 
individual. They are 

Aliquis, some one. Qmsquam, any one. 

Siquis, if any. Quispiam, some one. 

Nequis, lest any. Unusquisque^ cacA. 
Quisque, every one. 

1. Aliquis is thus declined : — 

Singular, 
M. F. 

JY. al'-i-quis, al'-i-qua, 

G. al-i-cu'-jus, al-i-cu'-jus, 

D. al'-i-cui;. al'-i-cui, 

Ac. ar-i-quem, al'-i-quam, 

V. 
M. 



such as denote an ob- 
indicating a particular 

Quidam, a certain one. 
Quill bet, ) any one you 
Quivis, 5 please. 



JV. 
al'-i-quod, or quid^ 
al-i-ca'-jus, 
al'-i-cui, 
al'-i-quod, or quid^ 



al'-i-quo. 


al'-i-qud. 
Plural 


aF-i-quo. 


M. 

aP-i-qui, 
al-i-quo'-rum, 
a-liq'-ui-bus, * 
al'-i-quos, 


F. 

al'-i-quae, 
al-i-qua'-rum, 
a-Iiq'-ui-bus, 
al^-i-quas, 


JV. 
aJ'-i-qua, 
al-i-quo'-rum, 
a-liq'-ui-bus,^ 
al'-i-qua, 



jsr. 

G. 
B. 

Ac. 
V. 

Ah. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. a-liq'-ui-bus. 

2. Siquis and nequis are declined in the same manner. 
But they sometimes have qucB in the nominative singula.! feminine. 
Aliqui, siquiy and neqid, are found for aliquis^ &e., and the ablatives aliqui 

and siqui also occur. 

Aliquid, siquid, and nequid, like qtdd^ are used substantively ; aliquod, 
&c., like quod, are used adjectively. 

3. Quisque, quisquam, and quispiam^ are declined like quis. 

But in the neuter singular, quisque has quodque, quidque, or quicque ; 
quisquam has quidquam or quicquam ; and quispiam has quodpiam, quid- 
piam, or quippiam. 

Quisquam wants the plural, and quispiam is scarcely used in that num- 
ber, except in the nominative feminine, qumpiam. 

4. Unusquisque is compounded of unus and quisque, and both 
words are declined. 

Thus unusquisque, uniuscujusque, unicuique, unumquemque^ &c. The 
neuter is unumquodque, or unumquidque. It has no plural. 

5. Quidam, quilibet, and qMvis, are dechned like qui, except 
that they have quod, or quid, in the neuter. 

Quidam has usually n before d in the accusative singular and genitive 
plural; as, quendam, quorundam, &c. 

* Pronounced a-lik'-we-bus. See §§ 9; and 19,4. 



VERBS, 83 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

<§> 139. The possessive are derived from the substantive 
pronouns, and from quis^ and designate something belong- 
ing to their primitives. 

They are mcus, tuus, suus^ noster, vester, and ciijus. Meus, 
tuns, and suus, are declined like bonus. (§ 105.) Mens has in 
the vocative singular masculine mi, and very rarely mens, 

Cujus is also declined like bonus ; but it is defective. See 
§ 137, 5. 

Noster and vester are declined Wke piger. See § 106, 

Remarks, 

1. The termination pte intensive is sometimes annexed to the ablative 
singular of the possessive pronouns ; as, suopte pondere, by its own weight ; 
■suapte maiiu, by his own hand. 

2. Suus, like its primitive sui, has always a reflexive signification. These 
pronouns are hence called reflexive. Mens, tuus, noster, and vester, are also 
used reflexively, when the subject of the proposition is of the first or 
second person. See § 132. 

PATRIAL PRONOUNS, 

These are nostras and cttjas. See § 137, 6. They are de- 
clined like adjectives of one termination ; as, nostras, nostrcUis, 



VERBS. 

<5> 140. A verb is a word by w^hich something is af- 
firme(J of a person or thing. 

That of w^hich any thing is affirmed is called the subject 
of the verb. 

A verb either expresses an action or state ; as, puer legit, the 
boy reads ; virtus lauddtur, virtue is praised ; equus currit, the 
horse runs ; aqua calet, the water is warm ; — or it connects an 
attribute w^ith a subject ; as, terra est rotunda, the earth is round. 

All verbs belong to the former of these classes, except sum, I am, the 
most common use of which is, to connect an attribute with a subject. 
When so used, it is called a copula. 

^ 141. Verbs are either active or neuter, 
I. An active verb expresses such an action as requires 
the addition of an object to complete the sense ; as, amo te, 
I love thee ; sequitur consulem, he follovi^s the consul. 

Most active verbs may express action in tv^^o ways, and, for 



84 yzitrs. 

this purpose, have two formSj which are called the active and 
passive voices. 

1. A verb in the active voice represents the agent as OA^ting 
upon some person or thing, called the object ; as, paer legit 
Ubrunij the boy is reading a book. 

2. A verb in the passive voice represents the object as being 
acted upon by the agent ; as, liber legitur a puero, a book is 
read by the boy. 

Remark. By comparing the two preceding examples, it will be seen 
that they have the same meaning. The passive voice may thus be sub- 
stituted at pleasure for the active, by making the object of the active the 
subject of the passive, and placing the subject of the active in the tiblative 
case, with or without the preposition a ox ah, according as it is a voluntary 
or involuntary agent. The active form is used to direct the attention 
especially to the agent as acting ; the passive, chiefly to exhibit the object 
as acted upon. In the one case the object, in the other the agent, is fre- 
quently omitted, and left indefinite ; as, puer legit , the boy is reading, i. e. 
lihrum, literas, &c., a book, a letter, &c. ; virtus lauddtur, virtue is praised, 
i. e.ah homimbusj by men. 

The two voices are distinguished from each other by peculiar 
terminations. 

^ 142. II. A neuter verb expresses such an action or 
state, as does not require the addition of an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, equus currit, the horse runs ; ego sedeo, 
I sit. 

Many verbs, in Latin, are considered as neuter, which are usually 
translated by an active verb in English. Thus indulgeo, I indulge, noceo, 
I hurt, pareo, I obey, are reckoned among neuter verbs. In strictnessj 
such verbs denote rather a state than an action, and their sense would be more 
exactly expressed by the verb to he with an adjective ; as, ^' I am indul- 
gent, 1 am hurtful," &c. Some verbs in Latin, which do not usually take 
an object after them, are yet active, since the object is omitted bj?«an ellip- 
sis. Thus credo properly signifies to intrust, and, in this sense, admits an 
object; as, credo tibi salutem meam, I intrust my safety to you; but it 
usually means to believe ; as, crede mihi, believe me. 

Remark 1. Neuter verbs have, in general, only the form of 
the active voice. They are, hov^ever, sometimes used imper- 
sonally in the passive voice. 

2. The neuter verbs audeo, I dare, fido, I trust, gaudeo, I rejoice, and 
soleo, I am wont, have the passive form in the perfect and its cognate 
tenses ; as, ausus sum, I dared. These verbs are called neuter passives. 

3. The neuter verbs vapulo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold, have an 
active form, but a passive meaning, and are called neutral passives. 

4. Some verbs, both active and neuter, have only the form 
of the passive voice. These are called deponent verbs, from de- 
pono, to lay aside, as having laid aside their active form, and 
their passive signification ; as, sequor, I follow : morior, I die. 

Note. Verbs are sometimes said to be transitive and intransitive, rather 



VERBS. MOODS ; TENSES. 85 

than active and neuter. The former terms are more significant, but the 
latter are more commonly used, and have the same meaning. 

To verbs, besides voices, belong moods, tenses, numbers^ 
and persons. 

MOODS. 

<§► 143. Moods are forms of the verb, denoting the 
manner of the action or state expressed by the verb. There 
are in Latin four moods — the indicative, the subjunctive, the 
imperative, and the infinitive. 

1. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
is used in independent and absolute assertions ; as, amo, I 
love ; amdbo, I shall love. 

2. The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to express an action or state simply as conceived 
by the mind ; as, si me obsecret, redlbo ; if he entreat me, 
I will return. 

3. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which 
is used in commanding, exhorting, or entreating; as, aina, 
love thou. 

4. The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
is used to denote an action or state indefinitely, without 
limiting it to any person or thing as its subject ; as, amdre, 
to love. 

TENSES. 

<§) 144. Tenses are forms of the verb, denoting the 
times of the action or state expressed by the verb. 

1. Time admits of a threefold division, into present, past, and 
future ; and, in each of these times, an action may be repre- 
sented either as going on, or as completed. From these two 
divisions arise the six tenses of a Latin verb, each of which is 
distinguished by its peculiar terminations. 

2. They are called the present, imperfect, future, perfect^ 
pluperfect, Q.nd future perfect tenses. 

Present C action ^ amo, I love, or am loving ; Present tense. 
Fast < not com- > amdbam, I was loving ; Imperfect tense. 
Future ^ pleted; ) amdbo, I shall love, or be loving ; Future tense. 



Present C action ^ amdvi, I have loved ; Perfect tense. 
Past < com- > amaveram, I had loved ; Pluperfect tense. 
Future ( pleted ; ) amavero, I shall have loved ) Future perfect tense 



86 



VERBS. TENSES. 




8. There is the same number of tenses in the passive voice^ 
in which actions not completed are represented by simple forms 
of the verb, and those which are completed by compound forms, 

amor, I am loved ; Present tense, 
amdhar, I was loved ; Imperfect tense, 
amdlor, I shall be loved } Future tense. 

I amdtus sum, orfui, I have been loved ; Perfect tense, 
> amdtus eram, oxfueram^ I had been loved ; Pluperfect. 
) amdtus ero, orfuerOj I shall have been loved ; Future 

[Perfect, 

<§> 145, I. The present tense represents an action as 
now going on, and not completed ; as, amo, I love, or am 
loving. 

I. Any existing custom, or general truth, may be expressed 
by this tense ; as, ajmd PartJios, signum datur tympano ; among 
the Parthians, the signal is given by a drum, 

2. The present tense may also denote an action which has existed for 
some time, and which still exists ; as, tot annos hella gero ; for so many 
years I have waged, and am still waging war. 

3. The present tense is sometimes used to describe past actions, in order 
to give animation to discourse ; as, desiliunt ex equis^provolant in primum; 
they dismount, they fly forward to the front. 

II. The imperfect tense represents an action as going on 
at some past time^ but not then completed ; as^ amdbam, I 
was loving. 

1. The imperfect sometimes denotes repeated or customary 
past action ; as, legeham, I was wont to read, 

2. It may also denote an action which had existed for some time, and 
which was still existing at a certain past time ; as, audit bat jamdudum 
verba ; he had long heard, and was still hearing the words. 

3. This tense is sometimes used for the present, in letters, with refer- 
ence to the time of their being read ; as, expectdbam, I was expecting^ 
(when I wrote). 

4. The imperfect also sometimes denotes intention or preparation to act 
at some past time ; as, olim ciim dabam, formerly when I was ready to 
give. 

III. The future tense denotes that an action will be going 
on hereafter, without reference to its completion ; as, amdbo^ 
I shall love or be loving. 

IV. The perfect tense represents an action either as just 
completed, or as completed in some indefinite past time ; 
as, amdvi, I have loved, or I loved. 

In the former sense, it is called the perfect definite ; in the lat- 
ter, which is more common, it is called the ptrfect indefnite. 



VERBS. NUMBERS ; PERSONS. 87 

V. The pluperfect tense represents a past action as com- 
pleted, at or before the time of some other past action or 
event ; as, litteras scripseram, antequam nuncius venit ; 1 
had written the letter, before the messenger arrived. 

VI. The future perfect tense denotes that an action will 
be completed, at or before the time of some other future 
action or event ; as, cum ccena\eYo,profciscar ; when I shall 
have supped, I will go. 

This tense is often, but improperly, called the future subjunctive. It has 
the signification of the indicative mood, and corresponds to the second fu- 
ture in English. 

Note. The present, imperfect, and future tenses passive, in English, 
do not express the exact sense of those tenses in Latin, as denoting an ac- 
tion which is, was, or will be, going on at a certain time. Thus laudor 
signifies, not '' I am praised," but " I am in the act of being praised," or, 
if such an expression is admissible, '' I am being praised." 

Remark 1, The six tenses above enumerated are found only 
in the indicative mood. 

2. The subjunctive mood has the present and past, but no 
future tenses. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood have less definiteness of meaning, 
in regard to time, than those of the indicative. Thus the present and per- 
fect, besides their common signs, may or can, may have or can have, must, 
in certain connections, be translated by might, could, would, or should ; 
might have, could have, &c. The tenses of this mood must often, also, be 
translated by the corresponding tenses of the indicative. For a more full 
account of the signification of the tenses of the subjunctive mood, 
see § 260. 

3. The imperative mood has but one tense, which is called 
the present, but which, from its nature, has a reference to the 
future. 

4. The infinitive mood has three tenses — the present, perfect, 
and future ; the first of which denotes an incomplete,the second 
a completed action, and the last an action to be performed. 

NUMBERS. 

<§. 146. Numbers are forms of the verb, denoting the 
unity or plurality of its subject. Verbs, like nouns, have 
two numbers — the singular and the plural. 

PERSONS. 

<§> 147. Persons are forms of the verb, appropriated to 
the different persons of the subject, and accordingly called 
the first, second, and third persons. 



88 VERBS. PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

1. As the imperative mood expresses the action which a second 
or third person is required to perform, it has terminations cor- 
responding to those persons only. 

2. The signification of the infinitive mood not being limited to 
any subject, it admits no change to express either number of 
person. 

3. The following are the terminations of the different persons 
of each number, in the indicative and subjunctive moods in both 
voices : — 





Active. 




Passive, 




Person. 


1. 2. 


3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Singular 


'• "" ?' 


t; 


r, ris, 


tur ; 


Plural, 


mus, tis, 


nt. 


mur, mini, 


ntur. 



These may be called personal terminations. 

Remark 1. The first person singulaij in the active voice, ends either in 
m or in a vowel. 

2. The perfect indicative active is irregular in the second person singu- 
lar, and in one of the forms of the third person plural. 

3. The passive form above given applies to the simple tenses only. 

4. The pronouns of the first and second persons are seldom expressed 
in Latin as subjects of a finite verb, the several persons being sufficiently 
distinguished by the terminations of the verb. 



PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND SUPINES. 

<§> 148. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, 
and partaking of its meaning, but having the form of an 
adjective. 

Like a verb, it has different voices and tenses ; like an adjec- 
tive, it has declension* and gender; and like both, it has tvs^o 
numbers. 

Active verbs have usually /bwr participles — two in the active 
voice, a present and a future; as, amans, loving; amaturus, about 
to love ; — and tv^o in the passive voice, a perfect and a future ; 
as, amdtus, loved, or having been loved ; amandus, to be loved. 

Neuter verbs have usually only the participles of the active 
voice. 

Deponent verbs, both active and neuter, may have the partici- 
ples of both voices. 

2. Gerunds are verbal nouns, used only in the oblique cases, 
and expressing the action or state of the verb. Like other ab- 

* See §§ 105 and 111. 



VERBS. CONJUGATION. 89 

stract nouns, they are found only in the singular number ; as, 
amandi, of loving, &/C. 

3. Supines also are verbal nouns of the fourth declension in 
the accusative and ablative singular ; as, amdtum, to love ; aindtu, 
to be loved. The supine in um is called the former supine ; that 
in w, the latter. The former is commonly used in an active, the 
latter in a passive sense. 



CONJUGATION. 

^ 149. The conjugation of a verb is the regular forma- 
tion and arrangement of its several parts, according to their 
voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

There are four conjugations, w^hich are characterized by 
the vow^el before re in the present of the infinitive active. 
In the first conjugation, it is a long ; 

In the second, e long ; 

In the third, e short; 

In the fourth, i long. 

Note. Do, dare, to give, and such of its compounds as are of the first 
conjugation, have a short before re. 

^ 150. A verb consists of two parts — the root^ and the 
verbal termination. 

1. The root of a verb consists of those letters which are not 
changed by inflection ; as, am in amo, amaftam, ^maverim^ 
Rmdtus. This may be called the general root. 

2. There are also three special roots, from which, by the ad- 
dition of certain terminations, all the parts of the verb are 
readily formed. The first of these roots is found in the pre se7it 
of the indicative, and is the same as the general root ; the sec- 
ond is found in the perfect ; and the third in the supine^ or per- 
fect participle. 

3. In regular verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjuga- 
tions, the second root is formed by adding, respectively, dv, ev, 
and iv, to the general root ; and the tJm^d root by a similar ad- 
dition of dtu, etu, and itu. 

Many verbs, however, in these three conjugations, form their 
second and third roots irregularly, as do almost all in the sec- 
ond, a great part adding u and itu, instead of ev and etu. 

4. In the third conjugation, the second root either is the 
same as the first, or is formed from it by adding s ; the third 
root is formed by adding tit. See § 171. 

8* 



90 



VEUBS. CONJUGATION. 



Note. In the second and fourth conjugations, e and i before o are 
considered as belonging not to the root, but to the termination. In verbs 
whose second or third roots are formed irregularly, the general root often 
undergoes some change in the parts derived from them. 

5. The vowel Vvhich unites the general root with the reniain- 
ing letters of the verb, is called the connecting vowel. Each 
eonjugation, except the third, is, in a great degree, distinguished 
by a peculiar connecting vowel, which is the same as character- 
izes the infinitives. See § 149. 

In the third conjugation, the connecting vowel is generally e or ^. in 
the second and fourth conjugations, and in verbs in io of the third, a sec- 
ond connecting vowel is sometimes added to that which characterizes the 
conjugation ; as, a in doceant, u in capiunt, &c. 

In verbs whose second and third roots are form.ed irregularly, the con- 
necting vowel often disappears, or is changed in the parts derived from 
those roots ; but it is almost always found in the parts derived from the 
first rcoL. 

<§> 151. 1. From i\\e first root are derived, in each voice, 
the present, imperfect, and future indicative ; the present and 
imperfect subjunctive, the imperative, and the present infinitive. 
From this root are derived also the present participle, the gerund, 
and the future participle passive. 

2. From the second root are derived, in the active voice, the 
perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative ; the perfect 
and pluperfect subjunctive, and the perfect infinitive. 

3. From the third root are derived, in the active voice, the 
supine in wm, and the future participle, the latter of which, with 
the verb esse, constitutes the future infinitive. 

From this root are derived, in the passive voice, the supine in 
^^, and the perfect participle, from the latter of which, with the 
verb sum, are formed all the tenses which in the active are de- 
rived from the second root. The future infinitive passive is 
formed from the supine in z/m, and irz, the present infinitive 
passive of the verb co, to go. 

4. The present and perfect indicative, the supine in um,^ and 
the present infinitive, are called \he principal parts of the verb, 
because from the first three the several roots are ascertained, 
and from the last, the characteristic vowel of the conjugation. 
In the passive voice, the principal parts are the present indica- 
tive and infinitive, and the perfect participle. 

§ 152. The following table exhibits a connected view of the 
verbal terminations, in all the conjugations. By annexing these 
to the several roots, all the parts of a verb may be formed. 

* A^; tlie supine in 7ini is wanting- in most verbs, the third root must often be deter 
mined from the perfect participle, or the future participle active. 



VEBBS. TERMINATIONS, 



91 



'5 5i 



d <u .'^ 



iill 



^ ;-i *-i ^ 

B B B^ 

cd cd Kj rt 

cj a> oi .ii5 



rt fl fl , 

a s a 





p^ 








o 








IH 








o 








> 






>>d 


» 






o 


> 






o 


M 






ce; 


06 






"Sid 


^ 






£ 


^ 






^ 








^ 




O 




^ 




o 


cS 


O 




s 


tin 


>s» 




&q 


H 


•^ 




> 


•M 


1 

« 




i 

Q 




5^ 




12; 




O 








•<s> 








>«ii> 








JS 








se 








•«s> 








s 


^ 






^ 


s 







_J P S rt rj 

asls 



. 1^ »-• tw »_i 



s s 



Is 



ictf Id leti 
03 (D O) . 






«2(?i 



ICQ 10) 



^ CD 

><u its 



.22 03 



o -d 0^ c.S 



5 =^ • M 

■♦J -^J i. 2 

fl rt S 5 

cd o) a).F±« 



^^ 2 g 
03 (D o) --i; 



a a S g 

Cd O) 10) .IIh 



5-5 



^ $« $^ ^ 



cd O) lO) . 



B 




S 
fl 


7 

1 


^ 


V 


? 












fl 






fi 


fi 


C 


1 


5 


a 


1 


a» 


Oi 


ca. 



»-t o 0) o.i: 



CC fl fl g 



© ^ cj «d 

^ iflS roi i(u . 



, « I I I I 



'^ S S s s 



«J ICti ICd _Q 

cd <D (D .^ 



J3 P 3 r' 

s a a| 

inj led ictJ Jg 
«d 0) oj .25 



S o o ^ i_ 



3 rt 



'2 ■*^ '■♦^ oT 52 



O 
O 



-H 
O 

pq 



■s-sll 



iBIi 



-42 «} ^ tf 

Id) 0? IRi.'S 



4? 2 cT^T 

K K. ».. «^ 

O O Q o 






SI fcT e« M {3 
-Q) O) (U cd .S 



)^ -fH (?i CO Tj* 



^■M v3 ^2 -3 

KU 0) Kd .^ 



•<13 0) icd ."S 







fill 


*^ >J ..N '"^ 


h^ 


icd 10) 103 .S 


led 103 <V .S 


t> 


|(?i S S.2.2 


1 I 1 I 


Iill 




1 ^ '-' '. 


-abas, 
-ebas, 
-ebas, 
-iebas 


icd i« a).S 




TH(?icO^ 


abam, 
ebam, 
ebam, 
iebam, 






V 


l|i-l 




-ntuoj 


' 






' 


rAdcorr 


r-ityicoTf 



92 



VERBS. — ^TERMINATIOlSrS^. 



p p S3 a 

.^j -M -*-s r; 

fl C fl tJ 

O QJ Ol 




VERBS. SUM- 93 

In analyzing a verb, the voice, person, and number, are ascertained by the 
personal terminations. See § 147, 3. The conjugation, mood, and tense, 
are, in general, determined by the letter or letters which intervene between 
the root of the verb and those terminations. Thus in amabdmus, mus de- 
notes that the verb is of the active voice, plural number, and first person ; 
ba denotes that it is of the indicative mood, imperfect tense; and the con- 
necting vowel a determines it to be of the first conjugation. So in ama- 
reminij mini denotes the passive voice, plural number, and second person ; 
re, the subjunctive mood, imperfect tense ; and a, as before, the first conju- 
gation. 

Sometimes, the part between the root of the verb and the personal ter- 
mination, does not precisely determine the conjugation, mood, and tense, 
but only within certain limits. In such cases, the conjugation may be 
learned, by finding the present tense in the dictionary, and if two forms 
are alike in the same conjugation, they can only be distinguished by the 
sense. Thus amtmus and docemus have the same termination ; but, as 
amo is of the first, and doceo of the second conjugation, the former is de- 
termined to be the subjunctive, the latter the indicative, present. Regar 
may be either future indicative, or present subjunctive — regimtis ^her 
present or perfect indicative. 

<§> 153* Sum, I am, is called an auxiliary verb, because it 
is used, in conjunction with participles, to supply the want of 
simple forms in other verbs. From its denoting existence, it 
is sometimes called the substantive verb. It is very irregular 
in those parts which, in other verbs, are formed from the first 
root. Its imperfect and future tenses seem to have been 
formed from the second root of some now obsolete verb, and 
to have been, not, as now, an imperfect and future^ but a plu- 
perfect and future perfect. It is thus conjugated : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres, Indie, Pres. Irtfin, Perf. Indie Fid. Part. 
Sum, es'-se, fu'-i, fu-tu'-rus. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

g C 1. sum, / am^ Bu'-mus, we arty 

g < 2. es, thou art,* es'-tis, t/ef are^ 

£^ (,3, est, he is ; sunt, they are* 

Imperfect* 

1. e'-ram, I was, e-ra'-mus, we were^ 

2. e'-ras, thou wast, e-ra'-tis, ye were, 

3. e'-rat, he was ; e'-rant, they were. 



* In the second person singular in English, the phiral form you is commonly used, 
except in solemn discourse 5 as, tu es, you are. 

+ The plural pronoun of the second person is either ije or you. 



94 VERBS. SUM. 



Future, shall^ or will. 

1. e'-ro, I shall be^ er'-i-mus, we shall 6e, 

2. e'-ris, thou unit he^ er'-i-tis, ye will he, 

3. e^-rit^ he will be ; e'-runt, they will be. 

Perfect, have been^ or mas. 

1. fu'-i, / have been, fu^-i-mus, we have been, 

2. fu-is'-ti, thou hoM been, fu-is'-tis, ye have been, 

3. fu^-it, he has been ; fu-e^-runt or -re, they have heen^ 

Pluperfect. 

1. fa^-e-TMn^ I had been, fu-e-ra'-mus, we had been^ 

2. fu'-e-ras, thou hadst been^ fu-e-ra'-tis, ye had been, 

3. fu'-e-rat, he had been ; fu/-e-rant, they had been. 

Future Perfect, shall or will have. 

1. fv/'^-TO, I shall have been, fii-er'-i-mus, we shall hjive been^ 

2. fa'-e-ris, thou unit have been, fu-er'-i-tis, ye will have been, 
3 fu'-€-rit, he will have been ; fli'-e-rint, they will have been^ 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present, may, or can. 

1. sim, I may be, si^-mus, we may be, 

2. sis, thou mayst be,. si'-tis, ye may be, 

3. sit, he may be ; sint. they may be. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should. 

1. es'-sem, / would be, es-se'-mus, we would be^ 

2. es'-ses, thou wouldstbe, es-se'-tis, ye would be, 

3. es'-set, he loould be ; es^-sent, they would be. 

Perfect. 

1. fu'-e-rim, I may have been, fu-er'-l-mus, vje may have been^ 

2. fu'-e-ris, thou mayst have been, fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been, 

3. fb^-e-rit, he may have been ; fu^-e-rint, they may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, couldy would^ or should have. 

1. fu-is'-sem, I would have been, fu-is-se^-mus, we would have heeny. 

2. iii-is'-ses, thou wouldst have been, fu-is-se'-tis, ye would have been, 
3a fti-is^-set, he vjould have been ; fu-is^-sent, they would have been^ 



Verbs. — suitf. 95 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2. es, or es'-to, be thou, es'-te, or es-to'-te, he ye^ 

3. es'-to, let him be ; sun'-to, let them be, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, es'-se, to be. 

Perfect, fu-is'-se, to have been. 

Future, fu-tu'-rus es'-se, to be about to be, 

PARTICIPLE. 

Future, fu-tu'-rus, ahout to be. 

Remarks. 

y lo4:« 1. A present participle ens seems to have been anciently 
used, and is now found in the compounds absens, prcBsens, and patens, 

2. The perfect/m*, and its derivative tenses, are formed from an obsolete 
fuOj whence come also the participle futurus, and an old subjunctive 
present fuam^ fuas, fuat ; , , fuant, 

3. From /mo are also derived the following : — 

Subj. imperf, fo'-rem, fo'-res, fo'-retj , , fo'-rent. 

Inf.pres. fo'-re. 

These forms seem to have been contracted from fuerem^ 
&c., and /were. Forem is equivalent in meaning to essem, but 
fo7^e has, in most cases, acquired a future signification, equiva- 
lent to futurus esse. 

4. Siem^ sies, siet, for sim, sis, sit, are found in ancient writers, as are 
also escit for erit, escunt for erunt, a,ndfuveTint for fuerint. 

5. Like sum are conjugated its compounds, except possum ; 
but prosum has d after pro, when the simple verb begins with 
e; as, 

Ind.pres. pro'-sum, prod'-es, prod'-est, &c. 
imperf. prod'-e-ram, prod'-e-ras, &c. 

6. Possum is compounded of potis, able, and sum. They 
are sometimes written separately, and then potis is the same in 
all genders and numbers. In composition, is is omitted in 
potis, and t, as in other cases, coming before 5, is changed into 
s. In ithe infinitive, and imperfect subjunctive, es of the simple 
verb is dropped, and / at the beginning of the second root. 
In every other respect, possum is conjugated like 5wm, wher- 
ever it is found ; but the imperative, and parts derived from th« 
third root, are wanting. 



96 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 



Pres. Ind. 
Pos'-sum, 



Pres, Inf. 

pos'-se, 



Perf. Ind. 
pot^-u-i, 



I can. or lam able. 



INDICATIVE. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. pos'-sim, &c. 
Imperf. pos^-sem, &c. 
Perf. pot-u'-e-rim, &c. 
Plup. pot-u-is'-sem, &c. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres. pos'-se. 
Perf. pot-u-is'-se. 

The following forms are also found \-—potessim and possiem, &c., for 
passim, &c. ; potesse for posse; potestur for potest: and possUur for possit. 



Pres J "^^ PO'^'"^^^? po "tes, po'-test; 

* I P. pos'-su-mus, po-tes'-tis, pos'-sunt. 
Imperj. pot^-e-ram, &c. 
FzU. pot^-e-ro, &c. 

Perf. pot'-u-i, &c. 

Plup. pot-u'-e-ram, &c. 
Fut. perf pot-u'-e-ro, &c. 



^155. FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 



Pres, Ind, 
A'-mo, 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. 
a-ma'-re, a-ma'-vi, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 



Supine. 
a-raa'-tum. 



Sing. 


a'-mo, 
a'-mas, 




I love, 
thou lovest, 




a'-mat, 




he loves ; 


Plur. 


a-ma'-mus, 




we love. 




a-ma^-tis, 




ye love. 




a'-mant, 




they love. 


Sing. 
Plur. 


Imperfect, 
a-ma'-bam, 
a-ma^-bas, 
a-ma'-bat, 
am-a-ba^-mus, 


I was loving, 
thou wast loving, 
he was loving ; 
loe were loving, 




am-a-ba^-tis, 
a-ma'-bant, 




ye were loving, 
they were loving. 




Future. 


shall, 01 


' will. 


Sing. 


a-ma^-bo, 




I shall love, 




a-ma^-bis, 




thou wilt love. 




a-ma'-bit, 




he will love ; 


Plur. 


a-mab'-i-mus, 




we shall love. 




a-mab'-i-tis, 




ye will love. 




a-ma'-bunt, 




they will love 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 



97 



Perfect, loved, or have loved. 

I have loved. 



Sing, a-ma'-vi, 

am-a-vis^-ti, 

a-ma^-vit, 
Plur. a-mav^-i-mus, 

am-a-vis'-tis, 

am-a-ve'-runt or -re, 

Pluperfect. 
Sing, a-mav-e-ram, 

a-mav'-e-ras, 

a-mav^-e-rat, 
Plur am-a-ve-ra^-mus, 

am-a-ve-ra^-tis, 

a-mav'-e»rant, 



thou hast loved, 
he has loved ; 
IOC have loved, 
ye have loved, 
they have loved. 



I had loved, 
thou hadst loved, 
he had loved ; 
vje had loved, 
ye had loved, 
they had loved. 



Future Perfect 
Sing. 



Plur. 



a-mav'-e-ro, 

a-mav'-e-ris, 

a-mav'-e-rit, 

am-a-ver^-i-mus, 

am-a-ver'-i-tis, 

a-mav'-e-rint, 



shall or will have. 

I shall have loved, 
thou wilt have loved, 
he will have loved; 
we shall have loved, 
ye win have loved, 
they will have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



may 



or can. 



a'-mem, 


I may love, 


a'-mes, 


thou mayst love. 


a'-met, 


he may love ; 


a-me^-mus, 


we may love. 


a-me^-tis, 


ye may love. 


a^-ment, 


they may love. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should. 

Sing, a-ma^-rem, / would love, 

a-ma'-res, thou loouldst love, 

a-ma'-ret, he would love ; 

Plur, am-a-re^-mus, v^e ivould love, 

am-a-re^-tis, ye would love, 

a-ma'-rent, they would love. 
9 



^ VERBS. FIRS^ CONJUGATION, ACTIVE. 

Perfect. 

Sing, a-mav'-e-rim, I may have loved ^ , 

a-mav^-e-ris, thou may st have loved, 

a-mav'-e-rit, he may have loved; 

Plu7\ am-a-ver -i-mus^ we may have loved, 

am-a-ver -i-tis, ye may have loved, 

a-mav'-e-rint, they may have loved. 

Pluperfect, mighty could, would, or should have. 

Sing, am-a-vis'-sem^ / would have loved, 

am-a-vis'-ses, thou ivouldst have loved^ 

am-a-vis'-set, he would have loved; 

Plur. am-a-vis-se'-mus, loe would have loved, 

am-a-vis-se'-tis, ye would have loved, 

am-a-vis'-sent, they loould have loved 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Sing, a^-ma, or a-ma^-to, love thou, 

a-ma^-to, let him love ; 

Plur. a-^ma'-te, or am-a-to'-te, love ye, 

a-man'-to, let them love. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present, a-ma'-re, to love. 

Perfect, am-a-vis'-se, to have loved. 

Future, am-a-tu^-rus es^-se, to be about to love 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, a'-mans, loving. 

Future, am-a-tu'-rus, about to love. 

GERUND. 

G. a-man^-di, of loving, 

D. a-man'-do, to or for loving , 

Ac. a-man'-dum, loving, 

Ab. a-man^-do, by loving. 

SUPINE. 
Former, a-ma^-tum, to love. 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION^ PASSITE. 



99 



^156. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres, Indie, Pres. Infin. Perf. Part. 
A'-mor, a-ma'-ri, a-ma'-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



a-mor, 

a-ma'-ris or -re, 

a-ma'-tur, 

a-ma'-mur, 

a-mam^-i-ni, 

a-man^-tur, 



Imperfect 



a-ma^-bar, 
am-a-ba^-ris or -re, 
am-a-ba'-tur, 
Plur. am-a-ba'-mur, 
am-a-bam'-i-ni, 
am-a-ban'-tur, 



/ am loved, 
thou art loved, 
he is loved; 
ive are loved, 
ye are loved, 
they are loved. 



I teas loved, 
thou ivast loved, 
he teas loved; 
we were loved, 
ye were loved, 
they were loved* 



Future, shall or ivill he. 



Sing. 



a-ma'-bor, 
a-mab^-e-ris or 
a-mab'-i-tur, 
Plur, a-mab^-i-mur, 
am-a-bim'-i-ni, 
am-a-bun^-tur, 



/ shall he loved, 
-re, thou wilt he loved, 

he will he loved; 
we shall he loved, 
ye will he loved, 
they will he loved. 



Perfect, have been, or was. 



Si7ig. a-ma'-tus sum or fu'-i, 
a-ma -tus es or fa-is'-ti, 
a-ma'-tus est or fu'-it, 

Plur. a-ma'-ti su'-miis or fu'-i-mus, 
a-ma'-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
a-ma'-ti sunt,"fa-e'-runt or -re, 



I have been loved, 
thou hast been loved, 
he has been loved ; 
2DC have been loved, 
ye have been loved, 
they have been loved. 



100 VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVlE. 

Pluperfect. 

>S^. a-ma^-tus e^-ram or fu'-e-ram, I had been loved, 

a-ma^-tus e'-ras or fu'-e-ras, tJiou hadst been lovea, 

a-ma'-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat, he had been loved; 

P. a-ma^-ti e-ra^-mus or fu-e-ra^-mus, we had been loved^ 

a-ma^-ti e-ra^-tis or fu-e-ra^-tis, ye had been lovedy 

a-ma''-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant, they had been loved. 

Future Perfect, shall have been, 

S. a-ma^-tus e'-ro or fu^-e-ro, / shall have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus e'-ris or fu^-e-ris, thou wilt have been lovedf 

a-ma'-tus e'-rit or fa^-e-rit, he icill have been loved ; 

P. a-ma^-ti er^-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, toe shall have been loved, 

a-ma^-ti er^-i-tis or fu-er^-i-tis, ye ivill have been loved, 

a-ma^-ti e'-runtor fu^-e-rint, they will have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. 7nay or can be. 

Sing, a-mer, I may be loved, 

a-me^-ris or -re, thou mayst be loved, 

a-me^-tur, he may be loved ; 

Plur. a-me'-mur, we may be loved, 

a-mem'-i-ni, ye may be loved, 

a-men'-tur, they may be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should he. 

Sing. a-ma''-rer, I would be loved, 

am-a-re^-ris or -re, thou woiddst be loved, 

am-a-re^-tur, he would be loved; 

Plur. am-a-re^-mur, we iDould be loved, 

am-a~rem'-i-ni, ye would be loved, 

am-a-ren'-tur, they would be loved. 

Perfect. 

S. a-ma^-tus sim or fu^-e-rim, I may have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sis or fu'-e-ris, thou mayst have been loved, 

a-ma'-tus sit or fu'-e-rit, he may have been loved; 

P. a-ma^-ti si^-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, ice may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti si^-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, ye may have been loved, 

a-ma'-ti sint or fu'-e-rint, they may have been loved. 



VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION, PASSIVE. 



101 



Pluperfect, mighty could, would, or should have been. 



S. a-ma^-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
a-ma^-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
a-ma^-tus es^-set or fu-is'-set, 

P. a-ma^-ti es-se^-mus or fu-is-se/-mus, 
a-ma^-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
a-ma^-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent, 



/ would have 
thou looiddst have 
he would have 
we would have 
ye would have 
they would have ^ 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Sing, a-ma^-re, or a-ma'-torj 

a-ma'-tor, 
Plur. a-mam'-i-ni, 

a-man'-tor, 



he thou loved, 
let him be loved ; 
be ye loved, 
let them be loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present, a-ma^-ri, 

Perfect, a-ma^-tus es^-se or fu-is^-se, 

Future, a-ma^-tum i^-ri, 



to be loved, 

to have been loved. 

to be about to he loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Perfect, a-ma^-tus, 
Future, a-man'-dus, 



loved, or having been loved, 
to be loved. 



SUPINE. 
Latter, a-ma^-tu, 



to be loved. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, am, are 
derived 



Ind. pres. 

imperf. 

M 

Subj. pres. 

• imperf. 
Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part, pres, 

fut- 

Gerund. 



Active. 


Passive. 


omo, 

Simdbam, 

amdbo, 


amor, 

amdbar, 

amdbor, 


axnem, 


amerj 


anndrem, 


amdrer, 


dLvna, 


amdre, 


amdre, 


amdri, 


amans, 


amandus 



amandi. 

9* 



From the second root, 
amav, are derived 

Active. 
Ind. per/. amavz, 

plup. amaveram, 

- fut. per/, amav^ro, 
Subj. per/. amav erim, 

plup. amavisse7}i, 

In/ per/. avaavisse, 

From the third root, 
In/ /ut. amatu/7^.9 esse, 
Part./ut. amaturw^, 

per/*. 

Form. Sup. amatu/w. 



From the third 

root, amatUydixe 
derived 
Passive, 

aniatu5 sum, &e. 

amatu5 eram, &c. 

amatu5 ero, &c. 

amatu5 sim, &e. 

amatu5 essem, &e. 

amatu5 esse, &,c. 

amatum iri, 

amatu^, 

Lat. Sup. amatu. 



LO-2 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



^ 157- SECOND CONJUGATION. 



ACTIYE YOiCE. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind, Mo'-ne-o, 

Pres, Inf. mo-ne^-re, 

Perf, Ind. mon'-u-i, 

Supine, mon-i-tum. 



Pres. Ind. mo^-ne-or, 
Pres. Inf. mo-rie^-ri, 
Peyf Part, mon'-i-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



1 advise, 

mo'-ne-o^ 

mo'-nes, 

mo'-net ; 

mo-ne'-mus, 

mo-ne^-tis, 

mo'-nent. 



Present. 



lam advised. 

Sing, mo^-ne-or, 

mo-ne^-ris or 
mo-ne'-tur ; 

Plur. mo-ne'-mur, 
mo-nem^-i-ni, 
mo-nen^-tur. 



■re. 



1 10 as advising, 

S. mo-ne'-bam, 
mo-ne'-bas, 
mo-ne'-bat ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-mus, 
mon-€-ba^-tis, 
mo-ne'-bant. 



Imperfect. 



/ was advised. 



S. mo-ne^-bar, 

mon-e-ba'-ris or -re, 
mon-e-ba'-tur ; 

P. mon-e-ba'-mur, 
mon-e-bam'-i-ni, 
mon-e-ban'-tur. 



Future. 



I shall or ivill advise, 

S. mo-ne'-bo, 

mo-ne^-bis, 

mo-ne'-bit; 
P. mo-neb^-i-mus, 

mo-neb^-i-tis, 

mo-ne^-bunt. 



I shall or will be advised. 

S. mo-ne'-bor, 

mo-neb^-e-ris or -re, 

mo-neb'-i-tur ; 
P. mo-neb'-i-mur, 

mon-e-bim'-i-ni, 

mon-e-bun'"tur. 



VERBS. 



-SECOND CONJUGATION. 



103 



ACTIVE. 

I advised, or have advised. 
S. mon^-u-i, 
mon-u-is'-ti, 
mon'-u-it ; 
P. mo-nu'-i-mus, 
mon-u-is'-tis, 
mon-u-e'-runt or -re. 



PASSIVE. 



Perfect. 



1 ivas or have been advised, 
S. mon'-i-tus sum or fu^-i, 
mon'-i-tus es or fu-is^-ti, 
mon'-i-tus est or fu'-it ; 
P. mon'-i-ti su'-mus or fu^-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti es'-tis or fu-is^-tis, 
mon'-i-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 



I had advised. 

S. mo-nu'-e-ram, 
mo-nu'-e-ras, 
mo-nu^-e-rat ; 

P. mon-u-e-ra^-mus, 
mon-u-e-ra'-tis, 
mo-nu^-e-rant. 



Pluperfect. 

I had been advised, 
S. mon'-i-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
mon'-i-tus e'-ras or fu^-e-ras, 
mon'-i-tus e'-rat or fu^-e-rat ; 
P. mon'-i-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra^-mus, 
mon^-i-ti e-ra'-tis or fu-e-ra^-tis, 
mon'-i-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



Future Perfect. 
I shall have advised. I shall have been advised. 



S, mo-nu^-e-ro, 
mo-nu'-e-ris, 
mo-nu^-e-rit ; 

P, mon-u-er^-i-mus, 
mon-u-er^-i-tis, 
mo-nu'-e-rint. 



>S^. mon'-i-tus e'-ro or fu^-e-ro, 
mon'-i-tus e^-ris or fu^-e-ris, 
mon^-i-tus e^-rit or fu^-e-rit ; 

P, mon^-i-ti er'-i-musorfu-er^-i-mus, 
mon'-i-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
men -i-ti e'-runt or fu'-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



I may or can advise. 

S. mo'-ne-am, 
mo'-ne-as, 
mo'-ne-at ; 

P. mo-ne-a'-mus, 
mo-ne-a'-tis, 
mo'-ne-ant. 



I may or can be advised. 
S. mo'-ne-ar, 

mo-ne-a'-ris or -re, 
mo-ne-a'-tur ; 
P. mo-ne-a'-mur, 
mo-ne-am'-i-ni, 
mo-ne-an'-tur. 



104 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE. 



Imperfect. 



PASSIVE. 



Inflight, could, would, or 

should advise, 

S, mo-ne^-rem^ 

mo-ne'-res, 

mo-ne^-ret ; 

P. mon-e-re^-mus, 

mon-e-re'-tis, 

mo-ne'-rent. 



I may have advised, 
S, mo-nu^-e-rim, 
mo-nu^-e-ris, 
mo-nu^-e-rit ; 
P. mon-u-er'-i-mus, 
mon-u-er^-i-tis, 
mo-nu^-e-rint. 



Imight, could, would, or 
should have advised, 
S. mon-u-is'-sem, 
mon-u-is'-ses, 
mon-u-is'-set ; 
JP. mon-u-is-se'-mus, 
mon-u-is-se'-tis^ 
mon-u-is^-sent. 



I might, could, would, or 
should be advised. 



S. 



mo-ne-rer, 
mon-e-re'-ris or • 
nion-e-re'-tur ; 
mon-e-re^-mur, 
mon-e-rem^-i-ni, 
mon-e-ren'-tur. 



re. 



Perfect. 

I may have been advised, 

S. mon'-i-tus sim or fu^-e-rim, 
mon'-i-tus sis or fu^-e-ris, 
mon^-i-tus sit or fu-e-rit ; 

P. mon'-i-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-i-mus^ 
mon^-i-ti si'-tis or fu-er -i-tis, 
mon^-ti sint or fu'-e-rint. 

Pluperfect. 
I might, could, would, or should 
have been advised. 
S. mon'-i-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
mon'-i-tiis es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
mon^-i-tus es'-set or fu-is -set ; 
P. mon^-i-ti es-se^-mus or fu-is-se -mus, 
mon'-i-ti es-se^-tis or fu-is-se^-tis, 
mon'-i-ti es'-sent or fu-is^-sent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



advise thou, 
S, mo'-ne, or mo-ne'-to, 

mo-ne'-to ; 
P. mo-ne'-te, or mon-e-to^-te, 

mo-nen'-to. 



be thou advised. 
S. mo-ne^-re, or mo-ne^-tor, 

mo-ne'-tor ; 
P. mo-nem^-i-ni, 

mo-nen'-tor. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. mo-ne'-re, to advise. 

Perf. mon-u-is'-se, to have ad- 
vised. 

Put. mon-i-tu'-rus es^-se, to he 
about to advise. 



Pres. mo-ne'^-ri, to be advised. 
Perf. mon'-i-tus es'-se or fu-is'- 

se, to have been advised. 
Put. mon'-i-tum i'-ri, to he 

about to be advised. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



105 



ACTIVE. 



PARTICIPLES. 



PASSIVE. 



Pres. mo'-nens, advising. 
Put. mon-i-tu'-rus, about to 
advise. 



Perf. mon'-i-tus, advised. 
Put. mo-nea'-dus, to he ad- 
vised. 



D. 



GERUND, 
mo-nen^-di, of advising, 
mo-nen^-do, &.c. 
Ac, mo-nen'-dum, 
Ah. mo-nen^do. 

SUPINES. 
Pormer. mon'-i-tum, to advise. \ Latter, mon'-i-tu, to he advised. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, mon, are 
derived, 



Ind. pres. 
— imperf. 

fut. 

SuhJ. pres. 

■ imperf. 
Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

fut. 

Gerund, 



.Active. 


Passive. 


moneo, 

monebarrif 

TCionebo, 


moneor, 

monebar, 

monebor, 


mo^neam, 


monear, 


monerem, 


monerer, 


raone, 


monere, 


monirey 


moneri, 


monens, 


monendus 



manendi. 



From the third root, 

monUUy are 

derived, 

Passive, 

moiiitu5 sum, &c. 



From the second 

root, monUj are 

derived, 

,^ctive. 

Ind. perf. monm, _, 

■ plup. monueram, monitu5 eram, &c. 
f ut. perf. monnero, monitu5 ero, &c. 
SubJ. perf. monuerim, monitus sim, &c. 
— - plup. moniiissem, monitus essem, &c. 
Inf. perf, monm^se, momtu^ esse, &c. 

From the third root, 
Inf. fut. moniturw^ esse, monituwi iri, 
Part. fut. moniturUrS, 
— perf. moiiitU5, 

Form. Sup. monitUTw. Lat, Sup. monttiL 



^158. THIRD CONJUGATION. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Pres. Ind. Re^-go, Pres, Ind. re'-gor, 

Pres. Inf. reg'-e-re, Pres, Inf. re'-gi, 

Perf. Ind. rex'-i, ^^^f Pdrt, rec'-tus. 

Supine, rec'-tura. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

/ rule. I an ruled. 

Sing, re'-go, Sing, re'-gor, 

re'-gis, reg'-e-ris or -re, 

re'-git ; reg^-T-tur ; 

Plur. reg^-i-mus, Plur. reg^-i-mur, 

reg'-T-tis, re-gim'-T-ni, 

re^-ofunt.. j re-^un^-tur. 



106 



VERBS. ^THIRD CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE. 

/ was ruling. 
S, re-ge'-bam, 

re-ge'-bas, 

re-ge^-bat ; 
P. reg-e-ba'-mus, 

reg-e-ba^-tis, 

re-ge^-bant. 

I shall or will rule. 
S. re'-gam, 

re'-ges, 

re^-get ; 
P. re-ge^-mus, 

re-ge^-tis, 

re^-gent. 

I ruled or have ruled. 
S. rex^-i, 

rex-is'-ti, 

rex^-it : 
P. rex'-T-mus, 

rex-is^-tis, 

rex-e^-runt or -re. 



I had ruled. 

S. rex'-e-ram, 
rex'-e-ras, 
rex^-e-rat ; 

P. rex-e-ra'-mus, 
rex-e-ra'-tis, 
rex^-e-rant. 



PASSIVE. 

Imperfect. 

I was ruled. 
S. re-ge^-bar, 

reg-e-ba^-ris or -re, 
reg-e-ba'-tur ; 
P. reg-e-ba^-mur, 
reg-e-bam'-i-ni, 
reg-e-ban'-tur. 
Future. 

/ shall or ivill he ruled. 
S. re'-gar^ 

re-ge^-ris or -re, 
re-ge^-tur ; 
P. re-ge^-mur, 
re-gem -i-ni J 
re-gen'-tur. 
Perfect. 

I ivas or have been ruled. 
S. rec'-tus sum or fu'-i, 
rec^-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
rec'-tus est or fa'-it ; 
P. rec'-ti su'-mus or fu'-i-mus, 
rec'-ti es'-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
rec'-ti sunt, fu-e'-runt or -re. 

Pluperfect. 

I had been ruled. 
S. rec'-tus e'-ram or fu'-e-ram, 
rec'-tus e/-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
rec'-tus e'-rat or fu -e-rat ; 
P. rec'-ti e-ra'-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, 
rec'-ti e-ra'-tis or fa- e-ra'-tis, 
rec'-ti e'-rant or fu'-e-rant. 



I shall have ruled. 
S, rex'-e-ro, 

rex'-e-ris, 

rex'-e-rit ; 
P. rex-er'-i-mus, 

rex-er'-i-tis, 

rex'-e-rint. 



Future Perfect. 

I shall have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, 
rec'-tus e'-ris or fu -e-ris, 
rec'-tus e'-rit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. rec'-ti er'-i-mus or fu-er'-i-mus, 
rec'-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
rec'-ti e' -runt or fu'-e-rint. 



VERBS. ^THIRD CONJUGATION. 



107 



ACTIVE. PASSIVIl. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



I may or can rule. 
S, re -gam, 

re'-gas, 

re'-gat ; 
jP. re-ga^-mus, 

re-ga^-tis, 

re'-gant. 



I may or can he ruled. 
S. re'-gar, 

re-ga^-ris or -re, 

re-ga'-tur ; 
P, re-ga^-mur, 

re-gam'-i-ni, 

re-gan^-tur. 



Imperfect. 



1 7night, could, would, or 

should rule, 

S. reg^-e-rem, 

reg'-e-res, 

reg^-e-ret ; 

P. reg-e-re'-mus, 

reg-e-re^-tis, 

reg'-e-rent. 



I might, could, would, or 
should be ruled. 
S. reg'-e-rer, 

reg-e-re'-ris or -re, 
reg-e-re'-tur ; 
P, reg-e-re'-mur, 
reg-e-rem'-i-ni, 
reg-e-ren'-tur. 



/ may have ruled. 

S. rex'-e-rim, 
rex'-e-ris, 
rex^-e-rit ; 

P. rex-er'4-mus, 
rex-er'-i-tis, 
rex^-e-rint. 



Perfect. 

I may have been ruled. 

S. rec^-tus sim or fu^-e-rim, 
rec^-tus sis or fa'-e-ris, 
rec^-tus sit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. rec'-ti si^-mus or fu-er^-i-mus, 
rec'-ti si'-tis or fu-er^-i-tis, 
rec'-ti siiit or fu-e-rint. 



Imight, could, would, or 
should have ruled. 
S, rex-is'-sem, 

rex-is'-ses, 

rex-is^-set ; 
P. rex-is-se'-mus, 

rex-is-se'-tis, 

rex-is'-sent. 



Pluperfect. 

Imight, could, would, or should 
have been ruled. 

S. rec'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
rec'-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
rec'-tus es^-set or fu-is'-set ; 

P. rec'-ti es-se^-mus or fu-is-se'-mus, 
rec'-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
rec'-ti es'-sent or fu-is^-sent. 



108 



VERBS. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



rule thou, 
S, le'-gQ, or reg^-i-to, 

xeg'-i'io \ 
P. reg^-i-te, or reg-i-to^-te, 

re-gun'-to. 



he thou ruled, 

S. reg^-e-re, or reg-i-tor, 

reg^-i-tor ; 
P. re-gim^-i-ni, 

re-gun'-tor. 



Pres. reg'-e-re, to rule. 
Perf. rex-is^-se, to have ruled. 
Fut. rec-tu'-rus es'-se, to he 
about to rule. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. re^-gi, to he ruled. 
Perf. rec^-tus es^-se or fu-is'-se, 

to have been ruled. 
Fut. rec^-tum i^-ri, to he about 

to he ruled. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres, re'-gens, ruling. 

Fut. rec-tu'-rus, ahout to rule. 



Perf. rec''-tus, ruled. 

Fut, re-gen'-dus to he ruled. 



GERUND. 



G. re-gen'-di, of ruling, 
D. re-gen'-do, &c. 
Ac. re-gen'-dum, 
Ah. re-gen'-do. 



SUPINES. 
Former, rec'-tum, to rule. \ Latter, rec'-tu, to he ruled. 

Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, reg, are 
derived^ 



Ind, pres. 

imperf. 

fut. 

Subj. pres. 

• irrvperf. 
Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

fut. 

Gerund. 



Active. 


Passive 


rego, 


legor, 


regebam^ 


iQgibar, 


regam, 


regar, 


regam, 


legar, 


regerem, 


legerer, 


lege, 


regere, 


legere, 


Tegi, 


regejis, 





regendus. 



From the second root, From the third 

rex, are derived, root, rectu, are 
derived, 
Active. Passive. 

Ind. perf. lexi, rectus sum, &c. 

— plup. xexeram, rectus eram, &c. 

fut. perf rexero, rectus erO; &c. 

Subj. perf. lexeriin, rectus sim, &c. 

plup. lexissenif rectus essem, &c. 

Inf. perf. lexisse. rectus esse, &c. 

From the third root, 

Inf. fut. Tecinrus esse, rectUTTi iri, 
Part. fut. lecturus, 

perf. rectus, 

Form. Sup. rectum. Lat. Sup. rectu. 



VERBS. THIRD CONJ[J(iATION. 109 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

'§> 159. PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Pres. Ind, Ca^-pi-o, to take, \ Pres. Ind, ca^-pi-or, to he 



Pres. Inf. cap'-e-re, 
Perf. Ind, ce'-pi, 
Supine . c ap'-turn . 



taken, 
Pres. Inf. ca'-pi, 
Perf. Part, cap^-tus. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



S. ca'-pi-o, 
ca^-pis, 
ca^-pit ; 

P. cap'-i-mus, 
cap^-i-tis, 
ca^-pi-unt. 



S. ca'-pi-or, 

cap'-e-ris or -re, 

cap^-i-tur ; 
P. cap^-i-mur, 

ca-pim'-i-ni, 

ca-pi-un^-tur. 



Imperfect. 



8, ca-pi-e'-bam, 
ca-pi-e'-bas, 
ca-pi-e'-bat ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mus, 
ca-pi-e-ba^-tis, 
ca-pi-e'-bant. 



S. ca-pi-e'-bar, 

ca-pi-e-ba^-ris or -re, 
ca-pi-e-ba^-tur ; 

P. ca-pi-e-ba'-mur, 
ca-pi-e-bam'-i-ni, 
ca-pi-e-ban^-tur. 



Future. 



S, ca'-pi-am, 
ca^-pi-es, 
ca^-pi-et ; 

P. ca-pi-e'-mus, 
ca-pi-e'-tis, 
ca^-pi-ent. 



S. 



ca'-p>ar, 
ca-pi-e'-ris or 
ca-pi-e'-tur ; 
ca-pi-e'-mur, 
ca-pi-em^-i-ni, 
ca-pi-en^-tur. 



The parts formed from the second and third roots being en- 
tirely regular, only a synopsis of them is given. 



Perf. ce^-pi. 

Plup, cep-e-ram. 

Put. perf cep^-e-ro. 
10 



Perf. cap^-tus sum or fu'-i. 

Plup. cap^-tus e'-ram or fu^-e-ram. 
Put. perf. cap^-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 



110 



YER&S. THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



8. ca^-pi-am 
ca'-pi-as, 
ca'-pi-at ; 

jP. ca-pi-a^-mus, 
ca-pi-a^-tis, 
ca^-pi-ant. 



S. ca'-pi-ar, 

ca-pi-a^-ris or -re, 

ca-pi-a'-tur ; 
P. ca-pi-a'-raur, 

ca-pi-am'-i-ni, 

ca-pi-an^-tur. 



Imperfect. 



S. 



cap^-e-rem, >S^. cap'-e-rer, 
cap'-e-res, cap-e-re'-ris or -re, 

cap^-e-ret ; cap-e-re'-tur ; 

cap-e-re'-mus, P. cap-e-re'-mur, 
cap-e-re'-tis, cap-e-rem'-i-ni, 

cap'-e-rent. cap-e-ren'-tur. 

Pe7]f. cap^-tus sim or fu^-e-rim. 
Plup. cap'-tus es^-sem or fu-is-sem, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Perf. cep^-e-rim. 
Plup. ce-pis'-sein. 



S. ca^-pe, or cap'-i-to, 

cap'-i-to ; 
P. cap'-i-te, or cap-i-to'-te, 

ca-pi-un'-to. 



>S^. cap'-e-re, or cap'-i-tor, 

cap'-i-tor ; 
P. ca-pim'-i-ni, 

ca-pi-un'-tor. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. cap'-e-re. 
Perf. ce-pis'-se. 
Fut. cap-t>u'-rus es'-se. 



Pres. ca^-pi. 

Perf. cap'-tus es -se or fu-is'-se. 

Put. cap'-tum i'-ri. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. ca^-pi-ens. I Perf cap^-tus. 

Fut. cap-tu'-rus. | Fut. ca-pi-en^-dus. 

GERUND. 
G. ca-pi-en^-di, &c. | 

SUPINES. 
Former, cap'-tum. | Latter, cap'-tu. 



VERBS. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE, 



111 



<§>160. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Pres. Ind. Au'-di-o, 
Pres, Inf. au-di'-re, 
Perf. Ind. au-di'-vi, 
Supine. aa-dr-tum. 



Pres, Ind, au'-di-or, 
Pres Inf. au-di'-ri, 
Perf. Part. au-dF-tus. 



S. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



I hear, 

au'-di-o, 

au'-dis, 

au'-dit ; 

au-dF-mus, 

au-dr-tis, 

au^-di-unt. 



Present. 



>S^. 



/ ara heard, 

au^-di-or, 

aii-dF-ris 07 

au-di'-tur ; 

au-dr-murp 

au-dim^-i-ni, 

au-di-un^-tur. 



-re. 



I was hearing, 

S. au-di-e^-bam, 
au-di-e^-bas, 
au-di-e^-bat ; 

P. au-di-e-ba'-mus, 
au-di-e-ba^-tis, 
au-di-e'-bant. 



Imperfect. 



I was heard. 



S. au-di-e^-bar, 

au-di-e-ba^-ris or -re, 
au-di-e-ba^-tur ; 

P. au-di-e-ba^-mur, 
au-di-e-bam^-i-ni, 
au-di-e-ban'-tur. 



I shall or ivill hear, 

S. au^-di-am, 

au^-di-es, 

au'-di-et ; 

P. au-di-e'-mus, 

au-di-e'-tis, 

~ aa'-di-ent. 



Future. 



I shall or ivill be heard, 
S. 



au'-di-ar, 
au-di-e'-ris or • 
au-di-e^-tur ; 
au-di-e^-mur, 
au-di-em^-i-ni, 
au-di-en^-tur. 



re, 



112 



VERBS.- FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE. 

I heard or have heard, 

S. au-dF-vi, 

au-di-vis^-ti, 

au-dF-vit ; 
P. au-div^-i-mus, 

au-di-vis'-tis, 

au-di-ve^-runt or -re. 



PASSIVE. 



Perfect. 



1 had heard. 

S, au-div'-e-ram, 
au-div^-e-ras, 
au-div^-e-rat ; 

-F. au-di-ve-ra^-iTsus, 
au-di-ve-ra'-tiSj 
au-div^-e-rant. 



I shall have heard. 

^. au-div^-e-ro, 
au-div^-e-ris, 
au-div'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di-ver'-i-mus, 
au-di-ver'-i-tis, 
au-div^-e-rint. 



I have been or ivas heard. 

S. au-di'-tus sum or fu'-i, 
au-dr-tus es or fu-is'-ti, 
au-di -tus est or fu^-it ; 

P. au-di -ti su^-mus or fu^-i-mus, 
au-d^-ti es^-tis or fu-is'-tis, 
au-dF-ti sunt, fu-e^-runt or -re. 



Pluperfect. 

I had been heard. 

8. au-dr-tus e^-ram or fu^-e-ram, 
aa-dF-tus e^-ras or fu'-e-ras, 
au-dF-tus e'-rat or fu'-e-rat ; 

P. au-dr-ti e-ra^-mus or fu-e-ra'-mus, 
au-dF-ti e-ra^-tis or fu-e-ra'-tis, 
au-di'-ti e^-rant or fu'-e-rant. 

Future Perfect. 

I shall have been heard. 

S. au-di'-tus e -ro or fu'-e-ro, 
au-dl'-tus e'-ris or fu^-e-ris, 
au-dr-tus e^-rit or fu^-e-rit ; 

P. au-di'-ti er^-i-mus or fu-er^-i-mus, 
au-dr-ti er'-i-tis or fu-er'-l-tis, 
au-dl'-ti e'-ruiit or fu/-e-rint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 



I may or can hear. 


I may ox can be hear 


S, au'-di-am, 


S. au'-di-ar, 


au^-di-as, 


au-di-a^-ris or -re, 


au^-di-at ; 


au-di-a^-tur ; 


P. au-di- a'-mus, 


P. au-di-a'-mur, 


au-di-a'-tis, 


au-di- am '-i-ni, 


au'-di-ant. 


au-di-an^-tur. 



VERBS. 



-FOURTH CONJUeAXrON. 



113 



ACTIVE. 




PASSIVE. 




Imperfect. 


mighty could, would 


; or 


/ might, could, would, or 


should hear. 




should be heard. 


S. au-dr-rem, 




S. au-di'-rer, 


au-di^-res, 




au-di-re^-ris or -re, 


au-dF-ret ; 




au-di-re'-tur ; 


P. au-di-re^-mus, 




P, au-di-re^-mur. 


au-di-re^-tis, 




au-di-rem'-i-ni, 


au-dF-rent. 




au-di-ren^-tur. 



I may have heard, 
S. au-div^-e-rim, 
au-div'-e-ris, 
au-div^-e-rit ; 
P. au-di-ver^-i-mus, 
au-di-ver^-i-tis, 
au-div'-e-rint. 



Perfect. 

I may have been heard. 

S. au-dr-tus sim or fu^-e-rim, 
au-dF-tus sis or fu^-e-ris, 
au-di^-tus sit or fu'-e-rit ; 

P. au-di'-ti si'-mus or fu-er'-l-mus, 
au-dF-ti si^-tis or fu-er'-i-tis, 
au-di'-ti sint or fu^-e-rint. 



I might, could, ivould, 
or should have heard. 
S. au-di-vis'-sem, 
au-di-vis^-ses, 
au-di-vis'-set ; 
P. au-di-vis-se^-mus, 
au-di-vis-se^-tis, 
au-di-vis-sent. 



Pluperfect. 

I might, could, would, or should 
have been heard. 
S, au-di'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'-sem, 
au-di'-tus es'-ses or fu-is'-ses, 
au-df-tus es^-set or fu-is'-set ; 
P. au-di'-ti es-se'-mus or fu-is-se'-mu», 
au-dF-ti es-se'-tis or fu-is-se'-tis, 
au-dr-ti es'-sent or fu-is'-sent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



hear thou. 
S, au'-di, or au-dF-to, 

au-dF-to ; 
P. au-di'-te, or au-di-to'-te, 
au-di-un'-to. 
10* 



be thou heard, 
S, au-dF-re, or au-di'-tor, 

au-dF-tor ; 
P. au-dim'-i-ni, 

au-di-un'-tor. 



114 VERBS. -FOUHTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. au-dF-re, to hear. 
Perf. au-di-vis^-s8, to have 

heard. 
Put, au-di-tu^-rus es'-se, to be 

about to hear. 



Pres. au-dF-ri, to be heard, 
Perf. au-dF-tus es^-se or fu-is'- 

se, to have been heard. 
Put. au-dF-tum i^-ri, to be 

about to be heard. 



PARTICIPLES, 



JPr65.au^-di-ens, hearing. 



Perf. aii-dF-tus, heard. 



Put. au-di-tu^-rusj about to hear. Put. au-di-en'-dus, to be heard. 



GERUND, 

G. au-di-en^-di, of hearing, 
D. au-di-en^-do, &/C. 
Ac. au-di-en^-dum, 
Ab, au-di-en'-do. 

SUPINES. 
Former. au-dF-tum, to hear. \ Latter, au-di'-tu, to be heard. 



Formation of the Tenses. 



From the first root, aucl. are 
derived, 



Ind. pres. 
— — imp erf. 

fut. 

SubJ. pres. 

imperf. 

Imperat. 
Inf. pres. 
Part. pres. 

Gerund, 



Active. 


Passive. 


audzo, 


audzor, 


?i\xddebam 


, B^'adiebar, 


d.ndiojn, 


d^ndiar, 


dMdiiam, 


diudiar, 


d^wdilrem, 


^ndlrer, 


aud/, 


audfre, 


diWdlre, 


aud?7'z, 


oxidiens, 






^ndiendus 



ctiidiendi. 



From the second root, 
audiv, are derived, 

Active. 
Ind. perf audivz, 

plup. 3.ud\\eram. 

— - fit. perf audWero, 
Suhj. perf audiverm, 

plwp. audivi55677i. 

Inf. perf audivme. 

From the third root, 
Inffut. auditu77/5 esse 
Part.fut. auditurzfs, 

- perf 
Form. Sup. auditUTw. 



From the third 

root, auditUj are 

derived, 

Passive. 

audltu5 sum^ &c. 
auditu5 eram, &c. 
auditu5 ero, &c. 
auditus sim, &lc. 
audltu5 essem, &c. 
auditu5 esse, &c. 

; auditUTTi iri, 

auditu5, 
Lat. Sup. auditu. 



DEPONENT VERBS. 

<§) 161. Deponent verbs are conjugated like the passive 
voice, and have also all the participles and participial forma- 
tions of the active voice. Neuter deponent verbs, however, 



DEPONENT VERBS. 115 

want the fatare passive participle, except that the neuter in 
dum. is sometimes used impersonally. 

The following is an example of an active deponent verb of 
the first conjugation : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Mi'-ror, mi-ra'-ri, mi-ra'-tus, to admire, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. mi^-ror, mi-ra'-ris, &;C, I admire^ &dc. 

Imperf, mi-ra'-bar, &/C. I icas admiring. 

Fnt. mi-ra'-bor, I sJiall admire. 

Perf. mi-ra^-tus sum or fuM, I have admired. 

Plup, mi-ra^-tus e^-ram or fu^-e-ram, I had admired. 

Flit. perf. mi-ra^-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro, I shall have adinired. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. mi^-rer, mi-re'-ris, &lc. I may admire, &/C, 

Imperf. mi-ra^-rer, / ivould admire. 

Perf. mi-ra^-tus sim or fu'-e-rim, I may have admired. 

Plup. mi-ra^-tus es^-sem or fu-is'-sem, I would have admired, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
mi-ra^-re, or mi-ra'-tor, admire thou, 6lc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres, mi-ra'-ri, to admire. 

Perf mi-ra^-tus esse or fu-is'-se, to have admired. 

Put. act. mir-a-tu'-rus es^-se, to he about to admire. 

Put. pass, mi-ra'-tum i^-ri, to he ahout to he admired, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. mi^-rans, admiring. 

Perf. mi-ra'-tus, having admired. 

Put, act. mir-a-tu^-rus, ahout to admire. 

Put, pass, mi-ran -dus, to he admired, 

GERUND. 
G. mi-ran'-di, of admiring, &/C. 

SUPINES. 
Pormer. mi-ra'-tum, to admire. — Latter, mi-ra'-tu, to he admired. 



116 verbs.— remarks on the conjugations. 

Remarks on the Conjugations. 
Of the Tenses formed, from the First Root, 

<§) lo^» 1. A few words in the present subjunctive of the first and 
third conjugations, in the earlier writers, end in im; as, edini for edam^ 
duim for devi (from an old form duo) , creduim and perduim for credam and 
perdam. This was retained as the regular form in sim and velivi, from 
sum and volo, and in their compounds. 

S. The imperfect indicative in the fourth conjugation, sometimes, espe- 
cially in the more ancient writers, ends in ibam and ibar, for iebam and 
iebar, and the future in ibo and ibo?\ for iam and iar ; as, vestibam, largibaVj 
for vesti^bam, largiebar ; sciho, opperiboi\ for sciarrLj opperiar. 

3. The termination re, in the second person singular of the passive 
voice, is rare in the present, but common in the other simple tenses. 

4. The imperatives of dico,duco,facio,dindfero, are usually written dicj 
due, fac, and fer; in like manner their compounds, except those com- 
pounds of f ado which change a into ^. Scio has not sci, but scito. 

5. In the second person of the imperative passive, an ancient form in 
tnino in the singular, and minor in the plural, is very rarely found ; as^ 
f amino for fare, progrediminor for progredimini. 

6. The syllable er was often added to the present infinitive passive by 
the early po^ts > as, amarier for amdri. dicier for did. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Second Root, 

7. When the second root ends in v, a contraction often occurs in the 
tenses formed from it, by omitting v, with the first vowel of the termina- 
tion, when followed, in the fourth conjugation, by 5, and in the other 
conjugations, by s 01 r ; as, audissem for audivissem, amdsti for amaVisti, 
impUrunt for impleverunt, noram and nossefcr noveram and novisse. 

When the second root ends in iv, v alone is often omitted : as, audiero 
for audivero ; audiisse for audivisse. 

When this root ends in s or x, the syllables is, iss, and sis, are 
sometimes omitted in the termination of tenses derived from it ; as, evasti 
for evasisti, extinxti for extinxisti, divisse for divisisse; extinxem for extinx- 
issem, surrexe for surr exisse / accestis for ace essisf is, justi for jussisti. So ^ 
faxem for (facsissein,) fecissem. 

8. In the third person plural of the perfect indicative active, the form in 
ere is less common than that in erunt, especially in prose. 

9. Ancient forms of a future perfect in so, and a perfect subjunctive in 
sim, sometimes occur. They may, in general, be formed by adding these 
terminations to the second root of the verb ', as, recepso, emissim. But 
when the root ends in x, and frequently when it ends in s, only and im 
are added j aiS,jusso, objexim. V, at the end of the root, is changed into 5; 
as, levasso, locassim. U, at the end of the root, is changed into esso; as, 
habesso. Sometimes the vowel of the present is retained in these forms, 
though changed in the other parts derived from the second root; as, 
capso, faxo (facso),faxim (facsim). 

Note. Faxo B,nd faxim sometimes have the meaning of the future 
tense. 



VERBS. REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 117 

10. A future infinitive in sere is also sometimes found, which is formed 
hy adding that termination to the second root, changing, as before, v into s; 
as, impetrasscre for impetraturus esse. 

Of the Tenses formed from the Third Root. 

11. The supine in wm, though called one of the principal parts of the 
verb, belongs in fact to very few verbs, the whole number which have su- 
pines not amounting to three hundred. The part called in dictionaries the 
supine in um must therefore, in most cases, be considered as the neuter 
gender of the perfect participle. 

12. In the compound tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, 
the participle is always in the nominative case, but it is used in both num- 
bers, and in all genders, to correspond with the number and gender of the 
subject of the verb ; as, amdtus, -a, -um, est ; amdti, -ce, -a, sunt, &c. 

Fui, filer am, fiierim, and fuissem, are seldom used in the compound 
tenses of deponent verbs, and not so often as sum, &c., in those of other 
verbs, but they express fuore emphatically than the latter the completion 
of the action. 

13. The participles in the perfect and future infinitive, are used only in the 
nominative and accusative, but in all genders and in both numbers ; as, 
amdtus, -a, -um, esse oxfuisse; amdtum, -am, -um, esse or fuisse ; amati, -cBj 
-a, esse ox fuisse; amdtos, -as, -a, esse or fuisse; and so of the others. 

But these participles in this combination with esse, are sometimes used 
as indeclinable ; as. cohortes ad me missum facias. Cic. 

Periphrastic Conjugations. 

14. The participle in rus, joined to the tenses of the verb sum^ 
denotes intention, or being upon the point of doing something* 
Hence arises what is called the periphrastic conjugation. 

INDICATIVE. 

amaturus sum, I am about to love, 

amaturus eram, / was about to love. 

amaturus ero, / shall be about to love. 

amaturus fui, I was or have been about to love* 

amaturus fueram, / had been about to love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus sim, I may be about to love. 

amaturus essem, I would be about to love. 

amaturus fuerim, I may have been about to love. 

amaturus fuissem, I would have been about to love 

INFINITIVE. 

amaturus esse, to be about to love. 

.amaturus fuisse. to have'heen about to hvc^ 



118 



VERBS. ^REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 



Fuero is not found joined with the participle in rus. 

15. The participle in dus, with the verb sum, expresses neces- 
sity or propriety ; as, amandus sum, I must be loved, or deserve 
to be loved. With the various moods and tenses of sum., it forms 
a second periphrastic conjugation ^ — thus : 



amandus sum, 
amandus eram, 
amandus ero, 
amandus fui, 
amandus fueram, 
amandus fuero. 



amandus sim, 
amandus essem, 
amandus fuerim, 
amandus fuissem, 
amandus esse^ 
amandus fuisse. 



Participles, ^ 

16. Neuter verbs, as they want the passive voice, have usually only the 
participles of the active. Some of them, however, have perfect participles, 
of which a part are to be translated passively, others by past participles of 
English neuter verbs. Such are adultus, cessdtus, clamdtus, coalUus, con- 
cretus, defecius, deflagrcUus, emersus, errdtus, interitus, ohitus, occdsus, pla- 
£n,ius, redunddtus, regndtus, requietus, suddtus, suetus, triumphdtuSj ululdtuSy 
vigildtus. 

The following perfect participles, from verbs which are sometimes active, 
are also translated by active participles : — ccBndtuSy having supped ; potus, 
having drunk ; pransus, having dined 3 and sometimes jurdtus, having 
sworn. 

Some neuter verbs, also, ha-ve future passive participles ; as, dormiendus, 
errandus, regnandus^ vigilandus, &c. 

Note. Most passive participles of neuter verbs are indicated in the lists 
which follow. 

For the active meaning of osus and its compounds, see § 183, 1. 

17. The perfect participles of some deponent verbs have both an active 
and a passive sense ; as, adeptus lihertdtem, having obtained liberty, or 
adeptd libertdte, liberty having been obtained. 

So abomindtus, comitdtus, commentdtuSj complexus^ confessuSy contestdtus,. 
detestdtus, digndtus, dimensus^ emensus, ementitus, emeritus, cxpertus. exse- 
crdtus, interpretdtus , largitus, machindtus, lueditdhcs, mercdtus, metdtuSy 
oMitus, orsus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, j^ollicitus, testdtus, venerdtiis, 
ultus. 

18. The participles of neuter passive verbs have the signification of the 
active voice ; as, gavisus, having rejoiced. (See in lists.) 

But ausus is used both in an active and passive sense ; as, ausi omnes 
imnfridne nefas^ ausoque potlti. Virg. 

19. The genitive plural of participles in rus is not used, except that of 
futurus. 

20. In the third and fourth conjugations, the future passive participle 
sonietimes ends in undus, especially when f precedes. Potior has usually 
potiundus. In these conjugations the gerund also has sometimes undi, &c.. 

21. Many present and perfect participles are compounded with in, sig» 



VERBS. RULES OF CONJUGATION. 119 

nifying not, whose verbs do not admit of such composition ; they thus be- 
come adjectives ; as, insciens, ignorant ; impardtuSj unprepared. 

22. Participles, when they do not express distinctions of time, become 
adjectives, and as such are compared ; as, amans, loving ; amantior, aman- 
tissivius. In some instances, they become substantives ; as, prcefectus, a 
commander. 

Note. Many words derived from substantives, with the terminations 
of participles, dtus, itus^ and utv^^ are yet adjectives ; as, aldtus^ winged ; 
turritus, turreted, &c. See § 128, 7. 



General Rules of Conjugation. 

<§> 163. 1. Verbs which have a in the first root have it 
also in the third, though it be changed in the second ; as, fa- 
clOf factum ; liaheo, hahitum. 

2. The connecting vowel is often omitted in the second root, 
and in such cases, if v follows, it is changed into u. This 
happens in most verbs of the second conjugation. 

Remark. Some verbs prefix to the second root their initial 
consonant, with the vowel which follows it, or with e ; as, curro^ 
cucurri ; fallo^fefelli ; cano, cecini ; parco^ peperci. This prefix 
is called a reduplication. The verbs in which it is found will 
be specified hereafter. See § 171, Exc. 1, {b.) 

3. Verbs which want the second root want also the third. 

4. Compound verbs form their second and third roots like the 
simple verbs from which they are derived ; as, audio, audiviy 
auditum; exaudiOj exaudivi, exaudltum. 

Some compound verbs, however, are defective, whose simples are com- 
plete, and some are complete, whose simples are defective. 

Exc. 1. Compound verbs omit the reduplication; but the 
compounds of do, sto, disco, posco, and some of those of curro, 
retain it. 

Exc. 2. Verbs which, in composition, change a into e in the 
first root, (see § 189, 2,) retain e in the second and third roots 
of the compound ; as, scando, scandi, scansum ; descendo, de- 
scendi, descensum. 

Exc. 3, When a, cb, or e, in the first root of the simple verb, 
is changed in the compound into i, the same is retained in the 
second and third roots, in case the third root of the simple is a 
trisyllable ; as, habeo, habui, habttum ; prohibeo, prohibui, pro- 
hibitum. 

But if the third root is a dissyllable, the second root of the 
compound has usually the same vowel as that of the simple, 



120 



VERBS.— SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [I CONJ. 



but sometimes changes e into 2, and the third root has e; as^ 
facio, feci, factum ; co?ificio, confeci, confectum ; teneo, tenui, 
ientwn ; retineo, retinui, retentum. 

Note. The compounds of cadM, ago, frango, fango. and tango, retain 
a, and those of salio retain u, in the third root. 

Exc. 4. Compounds of yario, and some of d.o and ciibo, are of different 
conjugations from their simple verbs. 

A few other exceptions will be noticed in the following lists. 

Formation of Second and Third Roots. 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 

<^ 164. In regular verbs of this conjugation, the second 
root ends in dv, and the third in dtu; s,s, amo, amavi, amatum. 
The following list contains such regular verbs of this conjuga- 
tion as are of most frequent occurrence. 

Note. In this and the subsequent lists^ those verbs which are marked 
* are said to have no perfect participle ; those marked t to have no pres- 
ent participle. A dash ( — ) after the present, denotes that there is no sec- 
ond root. The participles in rus and dus, and the supines in um and u 
which are in use, are indicated respectively by the letters 7\, d., m., and tt. 
Jlbundo, for example, has no perfect participle, no supine, no participle in 
dus j' but it has a present participle, and a participle in rus. 

In the lists of irregular verbs, those compounds only are given, whose 
conjugation differs from that of their simples. 

When p. is subjoined to a deponent verb, it denotes that some of the 
parts which have commonly an active meaning, are used either actively and 
passively, or passively alone. Such verbs are by some grammarians call- 
ed common. 



*Abundo, r. to overfloio. 

Accuse, m. r. d. to ac- 
cuse. 

t Adumbro, to delineate. 

iEdifico, r. d. to huild. 

iEquo, r. d. to level. 

^stimo, r. d. to value. 

*Ambulo, m. d. to walk. 

Amo, r. d. to love. 

tAmplio, d. to enlarge. 

Appello, d. to call. 

Apto, d. to jit, 

Aro, r. d. to plough. 

*tAusculto, to listen. 

*tAutumo, to suppose. 

tBasio, — , d. to kiss. 

'^Bello, m. r. to wage 
war. 

fBeo, to bless. 

'*Boo, to bellow. 



tBrevio, to shorten. 

tCaeco, to blind. 

tCselo, to carve. 

tCalceo, d. to shoe. 

^tCalcitro, to kick. 

Canto, m. to sing. 

Capto, m. d. to seize. 

tCastigo, m. d.to chas- 
tise. 

Celebro, d, to celebrate. 

Celo, d. to conceal. 

Cesso, to cease. 

Certo, r. d. to strive. 

Clamo, to shout. 

Cogito, to think. 

Comparo, d. to compare. 

Concilio, r. d. to recon- 
cile. 

Considero, r. d. to con- 
sider. 



Cremo, d, to burn. 
concremo, r. 

tCreo, r. d. to create. 

Crucio, d. to torment. 

Culpo, r. d. to blame. 

tCuneo, d. to icedge. 

Curo, r. d. to care. 

Damno, m. r. d. to con- 
demn. 

Decoro, d. to adorn. 

*tDelineo, to delineate. 

Desidero, r. d. to de- 
sire. 

Destine, d. to design. 

Dice, m. r. d. to dedi- 
cate. 

Dicto, to dictate. 

tDolo, to hew. 

Done, r. d. to bestow. 

Duplico, r. d. to double. 



1 CONJ.] VERBS. SKCONB AND THIRD ROOTS. 



121 



Duro, r. to liar den. 

t Effigio, to portray, 

Equlto, to ride. 

tEnucleo, to explain. 

Erro, to toander. 

ExistlmOjU.r.d. to think. 

Explore, m.d. to search. 

Exulo, m. r: to he ban- 
ished. 

Fabrico, d. to frame. 

tFatlgo, r. d. to 2ceary. 

Festino, r. to hasten. 

Firmo,r.d.io strengthen. 

Flagito,m.d. to demand. 

*Flagro, r. to be on fire. 
conflagro, r. 
deflagro. 

Flo, d. to blow. 

Formo, r. d. to form. 

Foro, d. to bore. 

tFraBno, to bridle. 

tFraudo, d. to defraud. 

tFrio, — , to crumble. 

Fugo, r. d. to put to 
flight. 

tFundo, r. to found. 

tFurio, — , to madden. 

tGaleo, — , to put on a 
helmet. 

Gesto, d, to bear. 

Glacio, — , to < 

Gravo, d. to weigh 
down. 

Gusto, d. to taste. 

Habito, m. d. to dwell. 

*Halo, — , to breathe. 

Hiemo, m. to winter. 

*Hio, d. to gape. 

tHumo. r. d. to bury. 

Jacto, r. d. to throio. 

Ignoro, r. d. to be igno- 
rant. 

Impero, r. d. to com- 
mand. 

tlmpetro, r. d, to.obtain. 

Inchoo, r. to begin. 

tindago, r. d. to trace 
out. 

Indico, m. r. d. to shoio. 

tlnebrio, — , to inebri- 
ate. 

Initio, to initiate. 

Inquino, to pollute. 

Instauro, d. to reneio. 

Intro, r. d. to enter. 

Invito, d. to invite. 

Irrlto, d. to irritate. 
II 



Itero, u. d. to do again. 
Judico, r. d. to judge. 
Jugo, d. to couple. 
Jugulo, m. d. to butcher. 
Juro, d. to swear. 
Laboro, r. d. to labor. 
Lacero, d. to tear. 
*Lacto, to suckle. 
tLanio, d. to butcher. 
Latro, to bark. 
Laudo, r. d. to praise. 
Laxo, d. to loose. 
tLego, to depute. 
Levo, r. d. to lighten. 
Libero, x. d.to free. 
Libo, d. to pour out. 
Ligo, to bind. 
tLiquo, d. to melt. 
Lito, to appease. 
Loco, r. d. to place. 
Lustro, d. to survey. 
Luxurio, to abound. 
Mac to, d. to slay. 
Maculo, to stain, 
Mando,r.d.io command. 
Manduco, to cheio. 
*Mano, to flow. 
Maturo, d. to ripen. 
Memoro, u. d. to tell. 
*Meo, to go. 
*Migro, u. r. to depart. 
*Milito, ra.x.to serve in 

loar. 
tMinio, d. to paint red. 
Ministro, d. to serve. 
Mitigo, d. to pacify. 
Monstro, r. to show. 

tdemonstro, d. 
Muto, r. d. to change. 
Narro, r. d. to tell. 
Nato, m. r. to swim. 
tNavigo, r. d. to sail. 
Navo, r. d. to perform. 
*Nauseo, to loathe. 
Nego, m. r. d. to deny, 
*No, to swim. 
Nomino, r. d. to name. 
Noto, d. to mark. 
Novo, r. d. to renew. 
Nudo, d. to make bare. 
Nuncupo, r. d. to name. 
Nuntio, m. r. to tell. 

rennntio, d. 
*Nuto, r. to nod. 
Obsecro, r. d. to beseech. 
Obtrunco, r. to kill. 
Onero, r. d. to load. 



Opto, d. to wish. 

tOrbo, r. to deprive. 

Orno, r. d. to adorn. 

Oro, m. r. d. to beg. 

Paco, d. to subdue. 

Paro, r. d. to prepare. 

Patro, r. d. to perform. 

*Pecco, r. to sin. 

tPio, d. to propitiate. 

Placo, r. d. to appease. 

Ploro, m. d. to beicail. 

Porto, u. r. d. to carry. 

Postiilo, m. r. d. to de- 
mand. 

Privo, d. to deprive. 

Probo, m. u. r. d. to ap- 
prove. 
comprobo, m. 

Profligo, d. to rout. 

Propero, d. to hasten. 

*tPropIno, to drink to. 

Propitio, d. to appease. 

Pugno, r. to fight. 

Pulso, d. to beat. 

Purgo, u.r. d. to cleanse. 

Puto, d. to think. 

Quasso, d. to shake. 

Radio, to emit rays. 

Rapto, d. to drag. 

Recupero, m. r. d. to 
recover. 

Recuso, r. d. to refuse. 

Redundo, to overflow. 

Regno, d. to rule. 

tRepudio, r. d. to reject. 

Resero, d. to unlock. 

*tRetalio, — , to retali- 
ate. 

Rigo, to water. 

Rogo, m. r. d. to ask. 

Roto, to whirl. 

Sacrifico,m.fo sacrifice. 

Sacro, d. to consecrate. 

tSagIno, d. to fatten. 

Salto, r. to dance. 

Saluto, m. r. to salute. 

Sano, r. d. to heal. 

Satio, to satiate. 

tSaturo, to fill. 

Saucio, d. to wound. 

*Secundo, to prosper. 

Sedo, m. d. to allay. 

Servo, r. d. to keep, 

*tSibilo, to hiss. 

Sicco, d. to dry. 

Signo, r. d. to mark out. 
assigno, m. 



122 



VERBS.- — SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [1 CONJ. 



Simulo, d. to pretend. 

Socio, d. to associate. 

*Somnio, to dream. 

Specto, m. r. d. to he- 
hold. 

Spero, d. to hope. 

*Spiro, to breathe. 
consplro. 
exspiro, r. 
susplroj d. 

Spolio, m. d. to roh. 

Spumo, to foam. 

Stillo, to drop, 

Stimulo, to^oad. 

Stipo, to stuff. 

Sudo, to siceat. 

SufFoco, to strangle. 

Sugillo, d. to taunt. 

Supero, r. d. to over- 
come. 

Suppedito, to afford. 



^Supplico, m. to sup- 
plicate. 

"Susurro, to whisper. 

Tardo, to delay. 

Taxo, d. to rate. 

Temero, d. to defile. 

Tempsro, r. d. to tem- 
per. 
obtempero, r. to obey. 

Tento, m. r. d. to try. 

Terebro, to bore. 

Termino, r. d. to limit. 

Titubo. to stagger. 

TolerOjU. r. d. to bear. 

Tracto, u. d.to handle. 

"tTripudio, to dance. 

Triumpho, r. to tri- 
umph. 

Trucldoj r. d. to kill. 

Turbo, d. to disturb. 

^Vaco, to be at leisure. 



*Vapulo, m. d. to he 
beaten. 

Vario, to diversify. 

Vasto, d. to lay waste. 

Vellico, to pluck. 

Verbero, r, d. to heat. 

* Vestigo, to search for. 

Vexo, d. to tease. 

Vibro, d. to brandish. 

Vigllo, d. to watch. 

Violo, m. r. d. to vio- 
late. 

Vitio, d. to vitiate. 

Vito, u. d. to shun. 

Ululo, to hold. 

Umbro, r. to shade. 

Voco, r. d. to call. 

*Volo, to fly. 

Voro, r. to devour. 

VulgOj r. d.to publish. 

Vulnero. d. to wound. 



<§) 165. The following verbs of the first conjugation are 
irregular or defective in their second and third roots : — 



*Crepo, crepui, to make a noise. 
^discrepo, -ui or -avi. 
increpo, -ui or -avi, -i turn, or atun 
^tpercrepo, — . 
^trecrepo, — . 
*Cubo,cubui, cubitum (sup.), to re- 
cline. 
incubo, -ui or -avi, d. 
Those compounds of cubo lohich take 
m before b, are of the third con- 
jugation. 
Do, dedi, datum, m. r. d. to give. 
So circumdo, pessumdo, satisdo, 
and venunido ; the other com- 
pounds of do are of the third 
conjugation. 
Domo, domui, domitum, r.d. to tame. 
Frico, fricui, frictum or fricatum, 
d. to rub. 
confrico, — , -atum. 
infrico, — , -atum. 
Juvo, juvi, jutum, r. d., also juvatu- 
rus, to help. 
So adjuvo,-juvi, -jutum, m. r. d. 
*Labo, — , to totter. 
Lavo, lavi, lavatum, lautum or lo- 
tum ; (sup.) lautum or lava- 
tum, lavaturus, d. to loash. 
Lavo is also sometimes of the 
third conjugation. 
*Mico, micui, to glitter. 



dimico, -avi or -ui, r. (-attirus). 
*emico, -ui, r. (-aturus). 
, *intermico, — , 
^promico, — , d. 
Neco, necavi or necui, necatum, r. d. 
to kill. 
eneco, -avi or -ui, -atum, or 

-turn, d. 
tinterneco, — , -atum. 
^tNexo, — , to tie. 
Plico, — , plicatum, to fold. 
duplico, -avi, -atum, r. d. 
multipllco and replico have -avi, 

-atum. 
*supplico, -avi, m. r. 
applico, -avi or -ui, -atum or 

-itum, -iturus. So implico. 
complico, -ui, -itum or -atum. 
explico, -avi or -ui, -atum or 
-itum, r. r. 
Poto, potavi, potatum or potum, r. r. 
m. m. d. to drink. 
tepoto, -avi, -um. 
"^erpoto, -avi. 
Seco, secui, sectum. secaturus, d. 
to cut. 
^circumseco, — . 
^interseco, — , d. 
^perseco, -ui. 

prseseco, -ui, -tum or -atum. So 
reseco, d. 



] CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



123 



'^Sono, sonui, -aturus, d. to sound. 
*cons6no, -ui. So ex-, in-, per-, 

prae-sono. 
*resono, -avi, 
*ass6no, — . So circumsono and 

dissono. 
*Sto, steti, st.aturus, to stand. 

*antesto, -steti. 6'^ circumsto, 

intersto, supersto. 
*consto, -stiti, -staturiis. So 

exto, insto, obsto, persto. 



*pr3esto, -stiti, -staturus, d. 

*adsto, -stiti, -stiturus. 

*prosto, -stiti. So resto. 

*disto, — . iSo substo. 
*Tono, tonui, to thunder. So cir- 
cumtuiio. 

attono, -ui, -itum. 

intono, -ui. -atum. 

*retono, — . 
Veto, vetuijO?' diV'i^yQilium^to forbid. 



<§> 166. All deponent verbs, of the first conjugation, are 
regular, and are conjugated like miror ; as, 

Frumentor, m. to for- 



I 



Abominor, d. to abhor. 

Adulor, d. to flatter. 

^mulor, d. to rival. 

*AprIcor, to bash in the 
sun. 

Arbitror, r. d. to think. 

Aspernor, d. p. to de- 
spise. 

Aucupor, r. p. to hunt 
after. 

Auxilior, p. to help. 

Aversor, d. to dislike. 

Calumnior, to calumni- 
ate. 

Causor, to allege. 

*Coniissor, m. to revel. 

Comltor, p. to accom- 
pany. 

Concionor,^o harangue. 

*Confabulor, m. to dis- 
course. 

Conor, d. to endeavor. 

tConspicor, to see. 

Contemplor, d. p. to 
view. 

Criminor, m. p. to 
blame. 

Cunctor, p. to deJaij. 

Deprecor, m. r. d. p. to 
deprecate. 

*tDigIadior, to fence. 

Dignor, d. p. to think 
iDorthij. 

Dominor, to rule. 

Epulor, ft"d. to feast. 

'^Famdlor, m. to icait on. 

Fat,u^; (defect.) a. d. to 
speak. See § 1H3, (). 

iFerior. r. to !;-:p /.•.••■//- 

da.: 



Furor, m. to steal. 

Glorior, r. d. to boast. 

Gratulor, m. d. to re- 
joice. 

Hortor, d. to encourage. 

Imitor, u. r. d. to imi- 
tate. 

Indignor, d. to disdain. 

Infitior, d. to deny. 

Insector, to pursue. 

Insidior, r. d. to lie in 
wait. 

Jaculor, p. to dart. 

Jocor, to jest. 

LsBtor, r. d. p. to rejoice. 

Lamentor, d. p. to be- 
wail. 

*tLignor, m. to gather 
fuel. 

Luctor, to wrestle. 

Medicor, r. d. p. to heal. 

Meditor, p. to meditate. 

Mercor, m. r. d. p. to 
buy. 

Minor, to threaten. 

Miror, u. r. d. to admire. 

Miser or, d. to pity. 

Moderor, u. d. to rule. 

Modulor, d. p. to mod- 
ulate. 

Moror, r. d. to dehiy. 

tMutuor, p. toborroiu. 

Negotior, r. to traffic. 

^tNugor, to trifle. 

Obtestor, p. to beseech. 

OpSror, to icork. 

Op! nor, u. r. d. ^o think. 

(-)pitjl"r. in. t) help. 



Opsonor, m. to cater. 

tOtior, to be at leisure. 

Pabulor, m. d. to graze. 

Palor, to wander. 

Percontor,m. to inquire. 

Periclitor, d. p. to try. 

tPiscor, m. to fish. 

Populor, r. d. p. to lay 
loaste. 

Pra3dor, m. to plunder. 

Pr(Elior, to fight. 

Precor, m. u. r. d. to 
2)ray. 

Recorder, d. to remem- 
ber. 

Rimor, d. to search. 

Rixor, to scold. 

*R.astTcor, to live in the 
country. 

Sciscitor, m. p. to in- 
quire. 

*Scitor, m. to ask. 

Scrutor, p. to search. 

Solor, d. to comfort. 

Spatior, to walk about. 

Speculor, m. r. d. to 
vieic. 

tStipulor, p. to stipu- 
late. 

tSuavior, d. to kiss. 

SuspTcor, to suspect. 

Tester, d. p. to icitness. 
So detestor. 

Tutor, d. to defend. 

Vagor, to icandcr. 

Veneror, d. p. to wot- 
shij). 

Venor, m. to hunt. 

Versor, to be employed 

Vccifc^ror. to hawL 



124 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [2 GONJ. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



<^ 167. Verbs of the second conjugation end in eo. The 
second and third roots, instead of ev and etu^ commonly end in 
u and itu; as, moneo, monm, monitw?z. 

The following list contains most verbs so conjugated, and 
also some which want the second and third roots : — 



*Aceo, to he sour. 
*Albeo, — , to he white. 
Arceo, d. to drive away. 
„ coerceo, d. to re- 
st rain. 

exerceo, d. to exer- 
cise. 
*Areo, to he dry. 
*Aveo, — . to covet. 
*Caleo, r. to he warm. 
*Calleo, — , to be hard. 

*percalleo, to he 
hardened. 
*Calveo, — , to he hald. 
*Candeo, to he white. 
*Caneo, to he hoary. 
^Careo, r. d. to want. 
*Ceveo, — , to fawn. 
*Clareo, to he hright. 
*ClueOj — , to he famous. 
*Denseo, — , to thicken. 
^DiribeOj — , to distri- 

hute. 
*Doleo, r. d. to grievfi. 
*Egeo, r. to want. 
*Emineo, to rise above. 
*Flacceo. to wither. 
*Flaveo, — ,to he yellow. 
*Floreo, to flourish. 
^Foeteo, — , to he fetid. 
*Frigeo, — , to be cold. 
^Frondeo, - — , to bear 

leaves. 
Habeo, r. di.to have. 

So ad-, ex-, pro-hi- 
beo. 

cohibeo, d. to re- 
strain. 



inhibeo, d. to hinder. 

"tperhibeo, d. to re- 
port. 

tposthabeo, to post- 
pone. 

prasbeo, r. d. to af- 
ford. 

debeo, r. d. to owe. 
^Hebeo, — , to be dull. 
*Horreo, d. to be rough. 
*Humeo, — , to be moist. 
" Jaceo, r. to lie. 
*Lacteo, — , to suck. 
*Langueo, to languish. 
^Lateo, to lie hid. 
^Lenteo, — , to he sloic. 
'^Liceo, to he valued. 
*Liveo, — , to be livid. 
*Maceo, — , to he lean. 
*Madeo, to be wet. 
Mereo, r to deserve. ' 

tcommereo, to de- 
serve. 

tdemereo, d. to earn. 

temereo, to merit. 

*tpermereo, to serve 
in war. 

promeYeOjto deserve. 
*Moereo, — , to grieve. 
Moneo, r. d. ^o advise. 

admoneo, m. r. d. to 
admonish. 

commoneo, to warn, 

prsmoneo, to fore- 
warn. 
^Muceo, — , to be 

mouldy. 
^Nigreo, to be black. 



"Niteo, to 

Noceo, m. r. to hurt. 

*01eo, to smell. 

"Palleo, to he pale. 

"Pareo, m. r. to obey. 

*Pateo, to be open. 

Placeo, to please. 

*Polleo, — , to he able. 

*Puteo, to he nauseous. 

*Putreo, to he putrid. 

*Renideo, — , to glitter. 

*Rigeo, to he stiff. 

*Rubeo, to be red. 

^Scateo, — , to overflow, 

*Sileo, d. to be silent. 

*Sordeo, to he filthy. 

*Splendeo, — , to shine 

*Squaleo, to be foul. 

*Strideo, — , to creak. 

*Studeo, to study. 

*Stupeo, to he amazed. 

Taceo, r. d. to be silent. 

*Tepeo, to be loarm. 

Terreo, d. to terrify. 
So de terreo, to deter. 
tabsterreo, to deter. 
tconterreo, ^ to 
fexterreo, >fright- 
tperterreo, ^ en. 

*Timeo, d. to fear. 

^Torpeo, to be torpid. 

*Tumeo, to swell. 

*Valeo, to be able. 

* Vegeo, — , to he strong. 

*Vieo, — , to hind. 

*Vigeo^ to he strong. 

*Vireo, to be green. 

*Uveo, — , to he rnoist. 



<§> 168. The following list contains those verbs of the sec- 
ond conjugation which do not form their second and third roots 
in u and itu, including those which form them regularly in ev 
and etu. 

Note. Some verbs of this conjugation are irregular in the second and 
third roots, in consequence of imitating the common forms of the third 
conjugation. 



2 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



125 



Aboleo, -6vi, -itum, r. d. to efface. 

*Algeo, alsi, to he cold. 

Ardeo, arsi, arsum, r. to burn. 

Audeo, ausus sum, r. d. to dare. 

Augeo, auxi, auctunij r. d. to in- 
crease. 

Caveo, cavi, cautum, m. d. to he- 
ware. 

Censeo, censui,censum, d. to think. 
recenseo, -ui, -um or -\t\\n\. 
*percenseo, -ui. 
"succenseo, -ui, d. 

Cieo, civi, citum, to excite. The per- 
fect civi seems to come from cio, 
of the fourth conjugation. 

Coinpieo, -evi, -etum, to fill. So 
the other compounds of pleo. 

^Conniveo. -nivi, to iclnk at. 

Deleo, -evi, -etum, d. to blot out. 

Docoo, docui, doctum, d. to teach. 

*Faveo, favi, fautarus, to favor. 

*Ferveo, ferbui, to boil. It is some- 
times of the third conjugation. 

Fleo, flevi, fletum, r. d. to toeep. 

Foveo, fovi, fotum, d. to cherish. 

Frendeo, — , fressum or fresum, to 
gnash. 

^Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. 

Fulgo, of the third conjugation, 
is also in use. 

Gaudeo, gavlsus sum, r. to rejoice. 

^Hsereo, hoBsi, hoesurus, to stick. 

Indalgeo, indulsi, indultum, r. d.to 
indulge. 

Jubeo, jussi, jussum, r. to order. 

^Luceo, luxi, to shine. 

polluceo, -luxi, -luctum. 

*Lugeo, luxi, d. to mourn. 

^Maneo, mansi, mansum, m. r, d. to 
remain. 



Misceo, miscui, mistum or mixtum, 

misturus, d. to mix. 
Mordeo, momordi, morsum, d. to 

bite. 
Moveo, movi; motum, r. d. to move. 
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, d, to soothe. 
*Mulgeo, mulsi or mulxi, to mi'k. 
Neo, nevi, netum, to spin. 
*Paveo, pavi, d. to fear. 
^Pendeo, pependi, to hang. 

propendeo, — . propensum. 
Pleo, {obsolete.) See compleo. 
Prandeo, prandi, pransum, r. to dine. 
Rideo, risi, risum, m. r. d. to laugh, 
"Sedeo, sedi, sessum, m. r. to sit. 

The compounds change e into i. 

*dissideo, -sedi. So prsesideo. 
*Seneo, senui, to he old. 
Soleo, solitus sum or soxj- to he ae- 

customed. 
^Sorbeo, sorbui, to suck in. 

*absorbeo, -sorbui or -sorpsi. 
Spondeo, ^popondi, sponsum, to 

promise. 
Suadeo, suasi, suasum, r.d. to advise. 
Teneo, tenui, tentum, r. d. to hold. 

The compounds change e into i. 

*attineo, -tinui. So pertineo. 
Tergeo, tersi, tersum, to loipe. 

Tergo, of the third conjugation, 
is also in use. 
Tondeo, — , tonsum, to shear. The 

compounds have the perfect tondi. 
Torqueo, torsi, tortum, d. to tioist. 
Tor re o, torrui, tostum, to roast, 
*Turgeo, tursi, to sicell. 
*Urgeo or urgueo, ursi, d. to urge. 
Video, vidi, visum, m. u. r. d. to see. 
Voveo, vovi, votum, to votv. 



^ 169. InqjersoJial Verbs of the Second Conjugation, 



Decet, decuit, it becomes. 

Libet, libuit or libitum est, it 

pleases. 
Licet, licuit or licitum est, it is law- 

Liquet, liquit, it is clear. 

Miseret, miseruit or miseritum est, 

it pities. 
Oportet, oportuit, it behoves. 

Note. Lubet, &c., are sometimes 
the comic writers. 

11* 



Piget, piguit or pigitum est, it 

grieves. 
Poenitet, poenituit, poeniturus, d. it 

repents. 
Pudet, puduit or puditum est, it 

shames. 
Tagdet, taeduit or tsesum est, it 

wearies. 

So pertaedet. 

written for libet, &c., especially ia 



1:26 VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ, 

§ 170. Deponent Verbs of the Second Conjugation. 

Fateor, fassus, r. d. to confess. *Medeor, d. to cure. 

The compounds change a into i. Mereor, meritus, to deserve. 

coniiteorj confessus, d. p to ac- Misereor, miseritus or misertus, to 

knoicledge. P^^y- 

^tdiffiteor, to deny. Polliceor, pollicituSy p. to promise, 

profiteor, professus, d. p. to de- Reor, ratus, to think. 

dare. Tueor, tuitus, d. p. to protectt 

Liceor, licitus, to bid a price. Vereor, veritus, d. to fear. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 

■§) 1 7 f . In the third conjugation, when the first root ends 
with a consonant, the second root is formed by adding s ; when 
it ends with a vowel, the first and second roots are the same : 
the third root is formed by adding tu ; as, carpo, carpsz, carp- 
Uvn ; argno, arguz, argutuwz. 

In annexing s and tu^ certain changes occur in the final consonant of 
the root : — 

1. C, g^ h, and qu, at the end of the root, form with s the double letter 
z in the 2d root; in the 3d root, c remains, and the others are changed 
into c before tu ; as, rego (regsi), rexi, rectum; veho, vezi, vectum ; 
coquo, coxi^ coctum. 

Note. lufluo,Jluxiy and struo, struxi, h seems to have been lost in the 
root of the verb. 

2. B is changed into p before s and tu; as, scribo, scripsi, scriptum. 

3. D and if, before 5, are either dropped, or changed into s ; as, claudoj 
clausi ; cedo, cessi. After w, p is sometimes inserted before s ; as, sumo, 
sumpsi. 

Some other consonants are dropped, or changed into s, in certain verbs 

Exc. 1. Many verbs whose first root ends in a consonant, do not add ^' 
to form the second root. 

(a.) Of these, some have the second root the same as the first ; as, 
Bibo, Excudo, Jco, Mando, Scabo, Solvo, Verro, 

Edo, Fodio, Lambo, Prehendo, Scandc, Strido, Verto, 

Emo, Fugio, Lego, Psallo, Sido, Tollo, Volvo ; 

to which add the compounds of the obsolete cando,fendo, and nuo. 

(b.) Some make a change in the first root. Of these, some change a 
vowel, some drop a consonant, some prefix a rediiplication, others admit 
two or more of these changes; as. 

Ago, Facio, Frango, Jacio, Rumpo, Scindo, 

Capio, Findo, Fundo, Linquo, Sisto, Vinco. 

Those which have a reduplication are 

Cado, Curro, Parco, Pendo, Tango, 

Caedo, Disco, Pario, Posco, Tendo, 

Cano, Fallo, Pello, Pungo, Tundo. 



3 CONJ.] VERBS. — -SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 127 

Exc. 2. Some add u to the root of the verb ; as, 

Alo, Consulo, Gemo, Rapio, Tremo, 

Colo, Depso, Geno, {ohs.) Strepo, Volo, 

Compesco, Fremo, Molo, Texo, Vomo, 

Meto and pono add su^ with a change in the root. 

Exc. 3. The following add iv : — 

Arcesso, Cupio, Lacesso, Rude, 

Capesso, Incesso, Peto, (^m^vo^ with a change of x into s. 

Exc. 4. The following add », with a change in the root; those in sco 
dropping st : — 

Cresco, Pasco, Scisco, Lino, Sino, Sterno, 

Nosco, Quiesco, Cerno, Sero, Sperno, Tero. 

Exc. 5. The 3d roots of verbs whose root ends in d or i, add su<, in- 
stead of tu^^ to the root, either dropping those letters, or changing them 
into s; as, claudoj clausum; defendo, dcfensum ; ccdo, cessum.' But the 
compounds of do add itu. 

The following, also, add sii, with a change of the root : — 

Excello, Fallo, Pelloj Spargo, Verro. 

Percello, Mergo, Promo, V^elio, 

Exc. 6. The following add tit, with a change of the root: — 
Cerno, Fingo, Gero, Sero, Sperno, Stringo, Uro, 

Colo, Frango, Rumpo, Sisto, Sterno, Tero, Vinco : 

to which add those in sco, with the 2d root in v ; these dropsc before fii, 

except j9a5C0, which drops c only. 

Exc. 7. The following have itu : — - 

Bibo, Molo, Pono, with a chunge of n into s. 

Geno, (obs.) Vomo, 

The following have itu : — 

Arcesso, Cupio, Peto, 

Facesso, Lacesso, Qusero, icith a change of r into s. 

Some other irregularities occur in this conjugation. 

<§> 172. The following list contains both the regular and 
irregular formations of the second and third roots in the third 
conjugation : — 

Acuo, acui, acutum, d. to sharpen. *Batuo, batui, d. to beat. 

Ago, egi, actum, r. d. to drive. Bibo, bibi, bibitum, d. to drink. 

So circumSgo, cogo, and perago. *Cado, cecidi, casurus, to fall. The 

*ambigo, — , to doubt. So satago. compounds change a into i, 

The other compounds change and di'op the reduplication. 

a into i. See § 189. 2. occldo, -cidi, -casum, r. to set. 

*prodigo, -egi, to squander. Caedo, cecidi, csesum, r. d. to cut. 

Alo, alui, alitum or altum, d. to The compounds change se into 

nourish. I, and drop the reduplica- 

*Ango, anxi, to strangle. tion. 

Arguo, argui, argutum, d. to convict. From candeo, of the second con- 

Arcesso, -cessivi, -cessltum, r. d. to jugation, is formed 

call for. accendo, -cendi, -censum, d. to 



128 



YERBS.-— SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ. 



kindle. So the other com- 
pounds. 
*Cano^ eecini, d. to sing. The com- 
pou7ids change a into i. 
*concino, -cinui. So occmo, 

praecino. 
*accino, — . So incino, intercino^ 
succino, recino. 
"Capesso, -ivi, r. d. to undertake. 
Capio, cepi, captum, r. d. to take. 
The compounds change a into i. 
Carpo, carpsi, carptum, d. to pluck. 

_ The compounds change a into e. 
CedOjCessi, cessum,r. to yield. 
Cello, (obsolete.) 

excello, -cellui, -celsum, to excel. 
*antecello, — So prsecello, re- 
cello, 
percelloj -culij -culsum^^o strike. 
Cerno, crevi, cretum, d. to decree. 
Cerno, to see, has no second or 
third root. 
Cingo, cinxij cinctum, d. to gird, 
*Clango. — , to clang. 
Claude, clausi, clausum^r. d. to shut. 
The compounds change OMinto u. 
^f Clepo, clepsij or clepi, to steal. 
Colo, colui, cultum, d. to till. 

tocculo, -cului, -cultum, to hide. 
Como, compsi, comptum, to deck. 
*Compesco, -pescui, to restrain, 
Consulo, -sului, -sultum, m. r. d. to 

consult. 
Coquo, coxij coctum, m. d. to cook. 
Credo, credidi, creditum, r. d. to he- 

lieve, 
*Cresco, crevi, to groic. 

concresco, -crevi, -cretum. 
Cubo is of the first conjugation. 
*accumbo, -cubui, to lie down. 
So the other compounds lohich 
*Cudo, — , to forge. [insert in. 

excudo,-cudi,-cusum, d. to stamp. 
Cupio, cuplvi, cupltum, d. to desire. 
*Curro, cucurri, cursurus, to run. 
Concurro, circumcurro, succur- 
ro, and transcurro, drop tiie 
reduplication ; the other com- 
pounds sometimes drop, and 
sometimes retain it. 
decurro, decurri, decursum. 
■^Dego, degi, d. to live, [take away. 
Demo, dempsi, demptum, r. d. to 
tDepso, depsui, depstum, to knead. 
Dico, dixi, dictum, u. r. d. to say. 
*Disco, didici, disciturus, d. to learn. 



^'Dispesco, — , to separate. 

Divido, divisi.divlsum, r.d.^o divide. 

Do is of the first conjugation. 

abdo, -didi, -ditum, d. to hide. So 

condo, indo. 
addo, -didi, -ditum, r. d.. to add. 
So dedo, edo, prodo, reddo^ 
trado, vendo. 
tdido, -didi, -ditum, to divide. So 

abdo, subdo. 
perdo, -didi, -ditum, m. r. d. to 
destroy. 
Duco, duxi, ductum,m.r.d. to lead. 
Edo, edi, esum, m, u. r. d. to eat. 

See § 181. 
Emo, emi, emptum, r. d. to huy. 
Facesso, -cessi, -cessltum, to execute. 
Facio, feci, factum, m. u. r. d. to do. 
Compounded loith a preposition, 
it changes a into i, and has a 
regidar passive. Compound- 
ed with other loord.s, it retains 
a ichen of this conjugation, 
and has the passive, fio, fac- 
tus. See § 180. 
Falio, fefelii, falsum, d. to deceive. 

*refello, -felli, to refute. 
Fendo, {obsolete.) 

defendo, -fendi, -fensum, m. u. r. 

d. to defend. 
offendo, -fendi, -fensum, d. to 
offe??.d. 
Fero, tuli, latum, r. d. to bear. Sec 
§ 179. A perfect ietuli is rare. 
*suffero, — . 
Fido, -~, fisus, to trust. See ^ 162, 18. 
confldo,conflsus sumorconfidi, 

to rely on. 
diffido, diffisus sum, to distrust. 
Figo, fixi, fixum, r. to fix. 
Findo, fidi, fissum, d. to cleave. 
Fin go, finxi, fictum, d. to feign. 
Flecto, flexi, flexum, d. to bend. 
'•Fligo, fiixi, to dash. So confligo. 
affllgo, -flixi, -flictum, to afflict. 

So infilgo. 
profligo is of the first conjugaiiun. 
Fluo, fiuxi, fluxum, r. to flow. 
Fodio, fodi, fossum, d. to dig. 
Frango, fregi, fractum, r. d. to break. 

The compounds change a into i. 
"Fremo, fremui, d. to roar. 
Frendo, — , fresum or fressum. to 

gnash. 
Frigo, frixi, frictum or frixum, to 
roast. 



3 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIKD ROOTS. 



129 



*Fugio, fugij fugiturus, d. to flee. 
Fundoj fuai, fusum, r. d. to pour. 
*Furo, — , to rage. 
*Geino, gemui, d. to groan. 
Gigno, {obsolete geno,) genui, geni- 

tmUj r. d. to beget. 
"Glisco, — , to grow. 
^Glubo, — , to peel. 

deglubo, —J -gluptum. 
Gruo, {obsolete.) 

*congruo, -grui, to agree. So 
ingruo. 
Jacio, jeci, jactum, d. to cast. The 

compounds change a into i. 
Ico, ici, ictum, r. to strike. 
Imbuo, imbui, imbutum, d. to imbue. 
*Incesso, -cesslvi, to attack. 
tinduo, indui; indatum, to put on. 
Jungo Junxi, junctunij r. d. to join. 
Lacessoj -cesslvi, -cessitunij r. d. to 

provoke. 
Lacio, {obsolete.) The compounds 
change a into i. 

allicio, -iexi, -lectum, d.foaZZwre. 
So illicio, pellicio. 

elicio,-licui,-licitum, to draw out. 
LaBdo, Igesi, laesum, m. r. to hurt. The 

compounds change ae into i. 
*Lambo, Iambi, to lick. 
Lego, legi, lectum, r. d. to read. So 
allego, perlego, prselego, rele- 
go, sublego, and translego; 
the other compounds change e 
into i. 

diligo, -Iexi, -lectum, to love. 

intelligo, -Iexi, -lectum, u. r. d. to 
understand. 

negligo, -Iexi, -lectum, r. d. to 
neglect. 
Lingo, — , linctum, d. to lick. 

*delingo, — . 
Lino, livi or levi, litum, to daub. 
*Linquo, liqui, d. to leave. 

relinquo, -llqui, -lictum, r. d. 

delinquo, -liqui, -lictum. So 
derelinquo. 
Ludo, lusi, lusum, r. to play. 
*Luo, lui, luiturus, d. to atone. 

abluo, -lui, -latum, r. d. 

diluo, -lui, -latum, d. So eluo. 
Mando, mandi. mansum, d. to chew. 
Mergo, mersi, mersum, r. to dip. 
Meto, messui, mcssum, d. to reap. 
Metuo, metui, metatvim, d. to fear. 
^Mingo, minxi, inictum, {sup.) to 

make loater. 
Miiiuo, minui, niinati.i.m, d. to lessen. 



Mitto, misi, missum, r. d. to send. 

Molo, molui, molitum, to grind. 

Mungo, {obsolete.) 

emungo, -munxi, -munctum, to 
loipe. 

Necto, nexi, nexum, d. to knit. 

innecto, -nexui, -nexum. So 
annecto, connecto. 

Nosco, novi, notum, d. to learn. 
agnosco, -novi, -nitum, d. to 

recognize. 
cognosco, -novi, -nitum, u. r. d. 

to know. 
*dignosco, — . So praenosco. 
ignosco, -novi, -notum, d, to 
pardon. 

Nubo, nupsi, nuptum, m. r. to marry. 

Nuo, {obsolete.) 

*abnuo, -nui, -nuitarus, d. to re- 
fuse. 
*annuo, -nui. So innuo, renuo. 

Pando, — , passum or pansum, to 
open. So expando. 
dispando, — , -pansum. 

Pago, {obs.) pepigi, pactum, to bar- 
gain. 

Pango, panxi, pactum, pancturus, d. 
to drive in. 
compingo, -pegi, -pactum. So 

impingo. 
*oppango, -pegi. 

*depango, — . So repango, sup- 
pingo. 

*Parco, peperci or parsi, parsurus, 
to spare. 

Pario, peperi, partum, pariturus, d. 
to bring forth. The compounds 
are of the fourth conjugation. 

Pasco, pavi, pastum, m. r. d. to feed. 

Pecto, — , pexum, d. to comb. 

Pello, pepuli, pulsum, d. to drive. 
The compounds drop the redupli- 
cation. 

Pendo, pependi, pensum, r. to weigh. 
The compounds drop the redupli- 
cation. 

Peto,petIvi, petltum, m.u.r. d. to ask. 

Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. 

Pinso, pinsi, pinsitum, pinsum or 
pistum, to grind. 

*Plango, planxi, plancturus, to la- 
ment. 

Piaudo, plausi, plausum, d. to ap- 
plaud. So applaudo. The other 
compounds change au into o. 

Plecto, — , plexum. d. to twine. 

"Pluo^ plui or pluvi-, to rain. 



130 



VEUBS.— SECONir AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ, 



Pono, posui, positum, r. d. to place. 
Pono, and its comvounds, ancient- 
ly had poslvi in the perfect. 
*Posco, poposci, d. to demand. 
Prehendo, ) -,. t , . 

Prendo, 5 '^^' "^^^^^' ^'- ^' '^^ ^"^^^* 
PremOjpressijpressum, r. d. to press. 

The compounds change e into i. 
Promo, prompsi. promptum, r. d. to 

bring out. 
*Psallo, psalli, to play C7i an instru- 
ment. 
Pungo, pupiigi. punctum, to prick. 
tiompungo, -punxij -punctnm. 

So dispungo, expunga. 
interpungo, — , -punctum. 
*repungo, — . 
Qu^ero, quaeslvi. quaesltum, m. r. d. 
to seek. The compounds change 
85 into i. 
Quatio, — J quassum.^o shake. The 
compounds change qua iiito 
cu; as, 
concutio, -cussi, -cussum, d. 
discutio, -cussi, -cussum, r. d. 
Quiesco, quievi, quietum, r. to rest. 
Rado, rasi, rasum, d. to shave. 
Rapio, rapui; raptum, r. d. to snatch. 
The compounds change a in- 
to i. 
diripio, -ripui, -reptum, m. So 
eripio and preeripio. 
Rego, rexi, rectum, r. d. to rule. 
The compouTids change e in- 
to i. 
*pergo {for perrigo), perrexi. r. 

to go forward. 
surgo {for surrigo),surrexi, sur- 
rectum, r. to rise. 
*Repo, repsi, to creep. 
Rodo, rosi, rosum, r. to gnaio. 

ab-, ar-, e-, ob-, prae-rodo, want 
the perfect. 
*Rudo, rudlvi, to bray. 
Rumpo, rupi, ruptum.r. d. to break. 
Ruo, rui, rutum, ruiturus, to fall. 
diruo, -rui, -rutum, d. So obruo. 
*corruo, -rui. So irruo. 
*Sapio, sapivi, to be icise. TJie com- 
pounds change a into i. 
resipio, -siplvi or -sipui. 
*tScabo, scabi, to scratch. 
Scalpo, scalpsi,^ scalptum, to en- 
grave. 
*Scando, — , d. to climb. The com- 
pounds change a into e ; as, 
ascendo^ ascendi, ascensum, r. d. 



Scindo, scidi, scissum, d. to cut. 
Scisco, scivi, scitum, d. to ordain. 
Scribo, scripsi, scrip turn, r. d. to 

icrite. 
Sculpo, sculpsi. sculptum, d. to carve. 
Sero, sevi, satum, r. d. to sow. 

consero, -sevi, -situm. So inse- 

ro,r. 
Sero, — , sertum, to knit. Its com- 
pounds have serui ) as. 

assero, -serui, -sertum, r. d. 
^Serpo, serpsi, to creep. 
"Sido. sidi, to settle. Its c&mj^oujids 

liave generally sedi, sessum. /rom 

sedeo. 
'"^Sino, sivi; siturus, to permit. 

desino, desivi, desitam, r. 
Sisto, stiti, statum, to stop. 

^absisto, -stiti. Sj the other com- 
pounds; but circumsisto icants 
the perfect. 
Solvo, solvi, solutum, r. d, to loose. 
Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, r. d. to 

spread. The comjwunds change 

a into e. 
Specio, {obsolete.) The comvounds 
change e into i ; as, 

aspicio, aspexi, aspectum, d. to 
look at. 

inspicio, inspexi, inspectum., r.il. 
Sperno, sprevi, spretum,d. to despise. 
^tSpuo, spui, to spit. 

^respuo, respui, d. 
Statuo. statui, statutum, d. to jjlace. 

The compounds change a into i. 
Sterno, stravi, stratum, d. to streic. 
*Sternuo, sternui, to sneeze. 
*^Sterto, — , to snore. 

"tdesterto, destertui. 
^Stinguo. — , to extinguish. 

distinguo, distinxi, distinctum. 
So extinguo, r. d. 
*Strepo, strepui, to make a noise. 
*Strido, stridi, to creak, 
Stringo, strinxi, strictum, r. d. to tie 

hard. 
Struo, struxi, structum, d. to build. 
Sugo, suxi, sue turn, to suck. 
Sumo, sumpsi, sumptum, r. d. to take, 
Suo, — , sutum, d. to sew. So consuo, 
dissuo. 

insuo, -sui, sutum.. 

*assuo, — . 
Tango, tetigi, tactum, r. d. to touchy 
The compoujids change a inta 
i, and drop the reduplication. 

contingo, contigi, contactum, r. 



3 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



131 



Tego, texi, tectum, r. d, to cover. 
*Temno, — , d, to despise. 

contenino, -tempsi, -temptum, d. 
Tendoj tetendi, tensum or tentuin, to 
stretch. The compounds drop 
the reduplication; as, 
extendo, -tendi, -tensum or -ten- 
turn. So in-, OS- and re-ten- 
do. 
detendo has tensum. Tfie other 
compounds have tentum. 
*tTergo, tersi, tersum. to wipe. Ter- 
geo, of the second conjugation y has 
the same second and third roots. 
Tero, trivi, tritum, d. to rub. 
Texo, texui, textum, d. to weave. 
Tingo or tinguo, tinxi, tinctum, r. d. 

to tinge. 
"Tollo, tolli, d. to raise. 

sustollo, sustuli, sublatum, r. to 

take aivay. 
*attollo, — . So extollo. 
Traho, traxi, tractum, r. d. to draw. 
"Tremo, tremui, d. to tremble. 
Tribuo, tribui, tributum, r. d. to 

ascribe. 
Trudo, trusi, trusum, to thrust. 



Tundo, tutudi, tunsum or tusum, to 
beat. The compounds drop tho 
reduplication, and have tusum. 
Yet detunsum, obtunsum, and 
re tunsum, are also found. 

Ungo, unxi, unctum, d. to anoint. 

Uro, ussi; ustum, d. to burn. 

* Vado, — , to go. So supervado. The 
other compounds have vasi; as^ 
*evado, evasi, r. So pervado ; 
also invado, r. d. 

Veho, vexi, vectum, r. to carry. 

Velio, velli or vulsi, va\sum,d. to pull. 
So avello, d., divello, evello, d., 

revello. 
The other compounds have velli 
* only, except intervello, which 
has vulsi, 

*Vergo, versi, to incline. 

Verro, versum, d. to brush-. 

Verto, verti, versum, r. d. to turn. 

Vinco, vici, victum, r. d. to conquer. 

*Viso, — , to visit. 

*Vivo, vixi, vie turns, to live. 

Volvo, volvi, volutum, d. to roll. 

Vomo, vomui, vomitum, r. d. to 
vomit. 



Inceptive Verbs, 

^ 1T3. Inceptive verbs in general want the third root, 
and their second root, when used, is the same as that of their 
primitives. Of those derived from nouns and adjectives, some 
want the perfect, and some form it by adding ui to the root of 
the primitive. See § 187, II. 2. 

In the following list, those verbs to which s is added, have a simple verb 
in use from which they are formed : — 



Wcesco, acui, s. to groio sour. 

*iEgresco, to groio sick. 

*Albesco, — , s. to groio white. 

*Alesco, — , s. to grow. 

coalesco, -alui, -alitum, to grow 
together. 

*Ardesco, arsi, s. to take fire. 

*Aresco, — , s. to grow dry. 

*exaresco, -arui. So inaresco, 
peraresco. 

*Augesco, auxi, s. to increase. 

*Calesco, calui, s. to groio warm. 

*Calvesco, — , s. to become bald. 

^Candesco, candui, s. to grow white. 

*Canesco, canui, s. to become hoa- 
ry. 



*Claresco, clarui, s. to become bright. 
*Condormisco, -dormlvi, s. to go to 

sleep. 
*Conticesco, -ticui, to become silent. 
*Crebresco, -crebui aiid crebrui, to 

increase. 
^Crudesco, crudui, to become raw. 
*Ditesco, — , to grow rich. 
*Dulcesco, — , to grow sweet. 
*Duresco, durui, to grow hard. 
^Evilesco, evilui, to become worth 

less. 
*Extimesco, -timui, to be afraid. 
*Fatisco, — , to gape. 
"Flaccesco, flaccui, s. to grow 

weak. 



132 



VERBS. 'SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [3 CONJ. 



*Fervesco, ferbni, s. to grow warm. 
""Floresco, florui, s. to begin to flour- 
ish. 
*"Fracesco, fracui, to grow mouldy. 

*Frigesco, — , s. to grow cold. 

^perfrigesco, -frixi. So refri- 
gesco. 

^Frondesco, — , s. to put forth leaves. 

^Fruticesco, — , to jiut forth fruit. 

^Gelasco, — , s. to freeze. 

*congelascO; -avi, s. to congeal. 

*Gemisco, — , s. to groan. 

^Gemmasco, — , to hud. 

*G^enerasco, — , s. to he produced. 

*GrandescOj — , to groio large. 

*GravescOj — , to groio heavy. 

^Hseresco, haesij s. to adhere. 

*Hebesco, — , s. to grow dull. 

^HorrescOy horrui, s. to groio rough. 

*Humesco, — , s. to grow moist. 

*Ignesco, — , to take fire. 

*Indolesco, -dolui, d. to he grieved. 

*InsolescOy — , to hecome haughty. 

*Integrasco, — , to he renewed. 

■^Juvenesco, — , to grow young. 

*Languesco, langui, s. to groio lan- 
guid. 

*Lapidesco, — , to hecome stone. 

*LatescOj — , to grow hroad. 

*Latesco, latui, to he concealed, s. So 
delitesco, -litui; oblitesco, -litui. 

^Lentesco, — , to become soft. 

^Liquesco, — , s. to hecome liquid. 
*deliquesco, -licui. 

*Lucesco, luxi, s. to groio light. 

■*Lutesco, — , s. to hecome muddy. 

^Macesco, — , s. ") , , 

*Macresco, -, 5 ^^ ^^^^ ^'''''^ 
*remacresco, -macrui. 

^Madesco, madui, s. to grow moist. 

*Marcesco, marcui, s. to pine away. 

^Maturesco, maturui, to ripen. 

"^Miserescoj miserui, s. to pity. 

*^Mitesco, — , to grow mild. 

*Mollesco, — , to grow soft. 

*MutescOj — , to hecome silent. 
*obmutesco, obmutui. 

*Nigresco, nigrui, s. to grow black. 

*Nitesco, nitui, s. to grov) bright. 

^Notesco, notui, to hecome known. 

*Obbrutesco, — ^ to hecome brutish. 

*Obcallesco, -callui, to hecome cal- 
lous. 

*Obdormisco, -dormlvi, s. to fall 
asleep. 

■^Obsurdesco, -surdui, to grow deaf. 

*01esco, {scarcely used.) 



aboiesco, -olevi, -olitum, s. to 

cease. 
adolesco, -olevi, -ultunij s. to 

grow up. 
exolesco, -olevi, -oletum, to grow 

old. So obsolesco. 
*inolesco, -olevi, d. to increase. 
*Palle«C0; pallui, s. to grow pale. 
*Patesco, patui, s. to he open. 
*Pavesco, pavi, s. to grow fearful. 
*Pertimesco, -timui, d. to fear 

greatly. 
*Pinguesco, — , to grow fat. 
*Pubesco, — , to come to maturity. 
*Puerasco, — , to hecome a hoy. 
*Putesco, putui, s. ) to hecome pu- 
^Putresco, putrui, s. 5 trid. 

"Raresco, — , to hecome thin. 
*Rigesco, rigoi, s. to grow cold. 
*Rubesco, rubui, s. to grow red. 

*erubesco, -rubui, d. 
*Resipisco, -sipui, s. to recover wis- 
dom. 
*Sanesco, — , to hecome sound. 

*consanesco, -sanui. 
*Senesco, senui, s. to grow old. So 

consenesco. 
*Sentisco, sensi, s. to perceive. 
*Siccesco, — , to hecome dry. 
*Silesco, silui, s. to grow silent. 
*Solidesco, — , to become solid. 
*Sordesco, sordui, s. to hecome filthy. 
*Splendesco, splendui, s. to hecome 

bright. 
^Spumesco, — , to foam. 
*Sterilesco, — , to hecome barren. 
*Stupesco, stupui, s. to he aston- 
ished. 
Suesco, suevi, suetum, s. to hecome 

accustomed. 
*Tabesco, tabui, s. to waste away. 
^Teneresco and -asco, to hecome 

tender. 
^Tepesco, tepui, s. to grow warm. 
*Torpesco, torpui, s. to groio torpid. 
*Tremisco, tremui, s. to begin to 

tremble. 
*Tumesco, tumui, s. to be inflated. 
^Turgesco, tursi, s. to swell. 
^Valesco, valui, s. to become strong. 
* Vanesco, — , to vanish. 

^evanesco, evaiiui. 
*Veterasco, veteravi, to grow old. 
*Viresco, virui, s. to grow green. 
*Vivesco, vixi, s to come to life. 

*revivisco, -vixi. 
^Uvesco, — , to become moist. 



4 CONJ.] VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. 



133 



<§> 1 74. Deponent Verbs of the Third Conjugation . 



Apiscor, aptus, to get. Jlie com- 
pounds change a into i. 

adipiscor, adeptus. So indipiscor. 
Expergiscor, experrectus, to awake. 
Fruor, frultus or fructus, fruiturus, 

d. to enjoy. 
Fungor, functus, r. d. to perform. 
Gradior, gressus, to proceed. The 
compounds change a into e ; 
as, 

aggredior, aggressus, to attack. 
*Irascor, to he angry. 
Labor, lapsus, r. to fall. 
*Liquor, to melt , flow. 
Loquor, locutus, r. d. to speak. 
Miniscor, {obsolete.) 

comminiscor, commentus, p. to 
invent. 

*reminiscor, to remember. 
Mori or, (mori, rarely moriri,) mor- 

tuus, moriturus, to die. 
Nanciscor, nactus or nanctus, to ob- 
tain. 



Nascor, natus, nasciturus, u. to be 

born. 
Nitor, nixus or nisus, nisurus, to 

lean upon. 
Obliviscor, oblltus, d. to forget. 
Faciscor, pactus, d. to bargain. 

Compound depeciscor. 
Patior, passus, r. d. to suffer. 

perpetior, -pessus. 

From plecto, to twine, 

amplector, amplexus, d. p. to 
embrace. 

complector, complexus, p. So 
circumplector. 
Froficiscor, profectus, r. to depart. 
Queror, questus, m. u. d. to com- 
plain. 
*Ringor, to grin. 
Sequor, secutus, r. d. to follow. 
Tuor, tutus, to protect. 
*Vescor, d. to eat. 
Ulciscor, ultus, m. d. p. io avenge. 
Utor, usus, r. d. to use. 



Note. Devertor, prcevertor^ revertor, compounds of verto, are used as 
deponents in the present and imperfect tenses ; revertor also, sometimes, 
in the perfect. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

<§) 175. Verbs of the fourth conjugation regularly form 
their second root in iv, and the third in ttu ; as, aud20, audivz, 
auditum. 

The following list contains most regular verbs of this conju- 
gation : — 



Audio, -ivi or -ii, m. u. r. d. to hear. 
*Cio, civi, to excite. 
Condio, -Ivi or -ii, to season. 
Custodio, -ivi or -ii, d. to keep. 
*Dormio, -ivi or -ii, m. r. d. ^o sleej). 
Erudio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to instruct. 
Expedio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to disentangle. 
Finio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to finish. 
*Gestio, -ivi or -ii, to desire. 
Impedio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to entangle. 
Insanio, -ivi or -ii, to be mad. 
Irretio, -ivi or -ii, to ensnare. 
Lenio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to mitigate. 
Mollio, -ivi or -ii, d. to soften. 
*Mugio, -Ivi or -ii, to bellow. 

12 



Munio, -Ivi or -ii, r. d. to fortify. 
Mutio, -Ivi, to mutter. 
Nutrio, -ivi or -ii, d. to nourish. 
Partio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to divide. 
Polio, -Ivi, d. to polish. 
Punio, -Ivi or -ii, d. to punish. 
Redimio, -ivi, to croicn. 
Sarrio, -Ivi, d. to loeed. 
Scio, -ivi, u. r. to know. 
Servio, -ivi or -ii, m. to serve. 
Sopio, -Ivi or -ii, to lull asleep. 
Stabilio, -ivi or -ii, to establish. 
Tinnio, -Ivi or -ii, r. to tinkle. 
Vestio, -ivi or -ii, to clothe. 



134 



VERBS. SECOND AND THIRD ROOTS. [4 CONJ. 



§ 176. The following list contains those verbs of the 
fourth conjugation which form their second and third roots 
irregularly, and those which want either or both of them : — 



Amicio, • — , amictum, d. to clothe. 

*Balbutio, — , to stammer. 

Bullio, — , to boil. 

*C8BCutio, — ^ to be dim-sighted. 

*Cambio, — , to exchange. 

*Dementio, — , to be mad. 

Effutio, — , to speak foolishly. 

Eo, ivi or ii, itum, r. to go. The com- 
pounds liavc only ii in the 'perfect, 
except obeoj prseeo, and subeo, 
which have Ivi or ii, All the 
compounds want the supine and 
perfect participles, except adeo, 
ambio, ineo, obeo, praetereo, and 
subeo. 

Farcio, farsi, farctum, to cram. 

Fastidio, -ii, -itum, d. to disdain, 

^■Ferio, — , d. to strike. 

*Ferocio, — , to be fierce. 

FulciOj fulsi, fultum, d. to prop. 

*Gannio, — ^ to yelp. 

*Glocio, — , to cluck. 

*Glutio, glutii, to swallow. 

*^Grunnio, grunnii, to grunt. 

Hauno, hausi, haustum, hausturus, 
hausurus, d. to draw. 

*Hinnio, — , to neigh. 

*Ineptio, — , to trifle. 

*Lascivio, lascivii, to be tcanton. 

*Ligurio, ligurii, to feed delicately. 

*Lippio, — , r. to be blear-eyed. 

*Obedio, obedii, r. to obey. 

Pario is of the third conjugation, 
but its compounds are of the 
fourth. 



aperio, aperui, apertum, r. d. to 
open. So operio, d. 

comperio, comperi, compertum, 
to find out. So reperio, r. d. 
Pavio, — , to beat, 
*Prurio, — , to itch, 
*Queo, quivi or quii, to be able. So 

nequeo. 
*Rugio, — , to roar. 
SoBvio, saevii, r. to rage. 
*Sagio, — , to foresee. 
*Salio, salui or salii, to leap. The 
compounds change a into i. 

*absilio, — . So circumsilio. 

"a&silio, -ui. So dissilio, insilio. 

*desilio, -ui or -ii. So exsilio, re- 
silio, subsilio. 

^transilio, -ui or -Ivi, d. So pro- 
silio. 
Sancio, sanxi, sanci turn or sanctum, 

d. to ratify. 
Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, d. to patch. 
*Scaturio, — , to gu^h out. 
Sentio, sensi, sensum, r. to feel. 
Sepelio, sepelivi or -ii, sepultum, r, 

d. to bury. 
Sepio, sepsi, septum, to hedge in. 
*Singultio, — , to sob. 
*Sitio, sitii, to thirst. 
Suffio, -ii, -itum, d. to fumigate. 
*Tussio, — , to cough. 
*Vagio, vagii, to cry. 
*tVeneo, venii, r. to be sold* 
Venio, veni, ventum, r. to come. 
Vincio, vinxi, vine turn ^ i. d. to bind. 



Note. Desiderative verbs want both the second and third roots, ex- 
cept these three ; — esurio, -ivi, r. to desire to eat; *nupturio, -ivi, to desire 
to marry ; *parturio, -ivi, to be in travail. See § 187, II. 3. 



^ 177. Deponent Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, 



Assentior, assensus, r. p. to assent. 
Blandior, blandltus, to flatter. 
Experior, expertus, r. d, to try. 
Largior, largitus, p. to lavish. 
Mentior, mentitus, r. to lie. 
Metior, mensus, d. to measure. 
Molior, molltus, d. to move a mass. 



Opperior, oppertus or opperltus, d. 

to wait for. 
Ordior, orsus, d. p. to begin. 
Orior, ortus, oriturus, d. to spring up. 

Except in the present infinitive, 

this verb seems to be of the third 

conjugation. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 135 

Partior, partitus, d. to divide. subjunctive are sometimes of the 

Potior, potitus, r. d. to obtain. The thitd conjugation in the poets, 

present indicative and imperfect Sortior, sortltus, r. to cast lots. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

<^ 178. Irregular verbs are such as deviate from the 
common forms in some of the parts derived from the first 
root. 

They are surn, volo,fero, edo,Jio, eo, and their compounds. 

Sum and its compounds have already been conjugated. See § 153. In 
the conjugation of the rest, the parts which are irregular are fully 
exhibited, and a synopsis of the other parts is, in general, given. Some 
parts of volo and its compounds are wanting. 

1. VoLO is irregular only in the present indicative and infini- 
tive, and in the present and imperfect subjunctive* 

It is made irregular partly by syncope, and partly by a change in the 
vowel of the root. In the present infinitive and imperfect subjunctive, 
after e was dropped, r was changed into I. 

Pres. Indie, Pres, Infin. Perf. Indie, 

Vo'-lo, veF-le, voF-u-i, to he imltin^y to tvish, 

INDICATIVE. 
Pres, S, vo^-lo, vis, vult ; P^Kf" vol'-u-i. 

P, voF-u-mus, vuF-tis, vo'-lunt Plupo vo-lu'-6-ram, 

Imperf. vo-le^-bam. Pui, perf, vo-lu'-e-ro. 

Put, vo'-lam. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres, S. ve^-lim, ve'-lis, ve'-lit ; P^rf, vo-Iu'-6-rim. 

P, ve-li'-mus, ve-li^-tis, ve'-lint Plup, vol-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf, S, veF-lem, veF-les, veV-let ; 

P, vel-le'-mus, vel-le'-tis, veF-lent. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres- vel'-le. Pres. vo'-Iens, 

Per/, vol-u-is'-se. 

Note. Volt and voltis, for vult and vultis, are found in PlautuB antl 
other ancient authors. 

2. Nolo is compounded of nnn and volo. Ncn drops its 
final w, and volo its v^ and the vowels [o o) are contracted into o. 



136 IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Injin. Perf. Indie, 

NcZ-lo, noF-Te, noF-u-i, to he unwilling, 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres, S. no'-lo, non'-vis, non'-vult ; Per/. noF-u-L 

P. noV-u-mus, non-vuF-tis, ncZ-lunt. Plup, no-lu'-e-ram. 
Imperf, no-le'-bam. Fut per/, no-lu'-e-ro. 

Fid. no'-lam. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. no^-lim, no^-lis, no'-lit ; P^rf. no-lu'-e-rim. 

P. Do-li^-mus, no-li'-tis, no^-lint. Plup, nol-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. noF-lem, nol'-les, noF-let; 

P. nol-le^-mus, nol-le^-tis, noV-lent. 

IMPERATIVE. 
»S. 2. no'-li, or no-li'-to ; P. 2. no-li'-te, or nol-i-to'-te. 

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. noF-le. Pres. no'-lens. 

Per/, nol-u-is'-se. 

Note. Nevis and nevolt^ for nonvis and nonvult, occur in Plautus, 

3. Malo is compounded of mag is and volo. In composition, 
magis drops its final syllable, and volo its v. The vowels {do) 
are then contracted into a. 

Pres. Indie. Pres. Injin. Perf. Indie. 

Ma^-lo, maF-le, maF-u-i, to he more willing. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. ma'-lo, ma'-vis, ma^-vult ; P^ff' maF-u-i. 

P. maF-u-mus, ma-vuF-tis, ma^-lunt. Plup. ma-lu'-e-ram. 
Imperf. ma-le^-bam. Fut. perf. ma-lu'-e-ro. 

Fut. ma'-lam. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres. S. ma- -lim, ma' -lis, ma' -lit ; P^ff^ ma-iu'-e-rim. 

P. ma-li'-mus, ma-li'-tis, ma'-lint. Pluy. mal-u-is'-sem. 

Imperf. S. maF-lem, maF-les^ maF-let ; 

P. mal-le'-mus, mal-le/-tis, maF-lent. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. maF-le. Per/*, mai-u-is'-se. 

Note. Mavolo, mavolam, mavelirris and mavellem, for maloy malam, 
&C.J occur in Plautus. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



137 



*§) 179. Fero is irregular in two respects: — 1. its second 
and third roots are not derived from the first : — 2, in the 
present infinitive active, and in the imperfect subjunctive, and 
certain parts of the present indicative and imperative, of both 
voices, the connecting vowel is omitted. In the present infini- 
tive passive, r is doubled. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indie, Fe'-ro, (to bear.) 

Prcs, Infin. fer'-re, 

Perf. Indie, tu'-li, 

Supi7ie, W-tum, 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indie, fe'-ror, (to be borne.) 
Pres. Infin. fer'-ri, 
Perf. Part, la'-tus. 





INDICATIVE. 


Pres. S. fe'-ro, 




Pres. S. fe'-ror, 


fers, 




fer'-ris or -re, 


fert; 




fer'-tur ; 


P. fer'-i-mus, 




P. fer'-i-mur, 


fer'-tis, 




fe-rim'-i-ni, 


fe'-runt. 




fe-run^-tur. 


Imperf. fe-re'-bam. 




Imperf fe-re'-bar. 


Fut. fe'-ram. 




Fut. fe'-rar. 


Perf. tu'-li. 




Perf la'-tus sum or fu'-i. 


Plup. tu^-le-ram. 




Plup. la'-tus e^-ram or fu'-S-ram. 


Fut. perf tu'-le-ro. 




Fut. perf. la'-tus e'-ro or fu'-g-ro. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres. fe'-ram. 




Pres. fe'-rar. 


Imperf fer^-rera. 




Imperf fer'-rer. 


Perf tu'-le-rim. 




Perf. la'-tus sim or fu'-6-rim. 


Plup. tu-lis'-sem. 




Plup . la'-tus es'-sem or fu-is'se m 




IMPERATIVE. 


S. fer, or fer'-to, 




S. fer'-re, or fer'-tor, 


fer'-to ; 




ferMor; 


P. fer'-te, or fer-to^-te, 




P. fe-rim'-i-ni, 


fe-run'-to. 




fe-run'-tor. 




INFINITIVE. 


Pres. fer^-re. 




Pres. fer'-ri. 


Perf tu-lis'-se. 




Perf. la'-tus es'-se or fu-is'-se. 


Fut. la-ta'-rus es^-se. 




Fut. la'-tum i'-ri. 




PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. fe'-rens. 


Perf. la'-tus. 


Fut. la-tu'-rus. 


Fut. fe-ren'-du9. 


GERUND. 




fe-ren'-di, &c. 




1 



Former, la'-tum. 



SUPINES. 

I 



Latter, la'-tu. 



^ 180. Fio has the meaning of the passive voice, though 
the parts formed from the^rs^ root, except the present infinitive 
12* 



133 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



and the participle in dus, have the terminations of the active. 
In its other parts, it has passive terminations. It is used as 
the passive voice of facio, which has no regular passive. 

Pres, Indie, Pres. Infin. Per/, Part 

Fi'-o, fi^-e-ri, fac^-tus, to he made or to become* 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. fi'-o, fis, fit ; Per/, fac'-tus sum or fu^-i. 

P. fi'-mus, fi' -tis, fi'-unt. Plup. fac^-tus e'-ram or tV-e-ram, 

Imperf. fi-e'-bam. Fut.perf, fac^-tus e'-ro or fu'-e-ro. 
Futr fi'-am. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pi^es, fi^-am. Plup, fac^-tus es'-sem or fu-is'- 

Imp. fi^-e-rem. sem. 

Per/, fac'-tus sim or fu^-e-rim. 

DIPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

S. fi or fi^-to, fi^-to ; Pres. fi^-e-ri. 

P, fi^-te or fi-to^-te, fi-un'-to. Per/, fac'-tus es'-se or fii-is'-se, 

Fut, fac'-tum i'-ri. 

PARTICIPLES. SUPINE. 

Per/, fac'-tus. Latter, fac'-tu, 

Fut. fa-ci-en^-dus. 

Note. The compounds of facio which retain a, have also Jio in the 
passive ; as, calefacio, to warm; passive, calefio ; but those which change 
a into ^ form the passive regularly. Yet conkt. defit, and injit, occur. 
See § 183, 12, 13, 14. ^ J ^ J ^ J ^ 

§ 181. Edo, to eat, is a regular verb of the third con- 
jugation ; but in the present of the indicative, imperative, and 
infinitive moods, and in the imperfect of the subjunctive, 
it resembles, in some of its persons, the same tenses of sum : — 
Thus, 

Ind.pres. — - — , — — , est; • , — — , — — . 

Suhj. imperf. , es'-ses, es'-set ; es-se'-mus, — — , . 



Imperat. Jes^Toj ' ^''-^^' 



Inf. pres. es'-se. 

Ind. pres. pass. , , es'-tur. 

Note. In the present subjunctive, edivi. edis^ &c.,are found, for edam, 
edas, &c. 

In the compounds of edo, also, forms resembling those of sum occur. 

<§> 182. Eo is irregular in the parts which, in other verbs, 
are formed from the first root, except the imperfect subjunctive, 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 139 

and the present infinitive. In these, and in the parts formed 
from the second and third roots, it is a regular verb of the 
fourth conjugation. 

Note. Eo has no first root, and the parts usually derived from that 
root, consist, in this verb, of terminations only. 

Pres. Indie Pres. Infin, Perf, Indie. Per/, Part, 

E'-o, i'-re, i'-vi, i^-tum, to go, 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. e'-o, is, it ; Fut. S. i'-bo, i'-bis, i'-bit ; 

P. i'-mus, i^-tis, e'-unt. P. ib'-i-mus, ib'-i-tis, i'-bunt 

Imperf. S. i'-bam, i'-bas, i^-bat ; Perf. i^-vi. 

P, i-ba'-mus, i-ba^-tis, Plup. iv'-e-ram* 
i'-bant. Fut. perf. iv'-e-ra 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. S. e'-am, e'-as, e'-at ; -Per/I iV-e-rim. 

P. e-a'-mus, e-a'-tis, e'-ant. Plup. i-vis'-sem. 

Imperf. S. i'-rem, i'-res, i'-ret ; 

P. i-re'-mus, i-re'-tis, i'-rent, 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 

S. i or i'-to, i'-to ; Pres. i'-re. 

P. i'-te or i-to'-te, e-un'-to, P^'^f i-vis'-se. 

FbU. i-tu'-rus es'-se* 

PARTICIPLES. GERUND. 

Prts. i'-ens, {gen. e-un'-tis.) e-ui^-di, &c, 

FuL i-tu'-rus. 

Remarks. 

1. lam, ies, iet, are sometimes found in the future. Istis,issem, and isse^ 
are formed by contraction for ivistis, ivissem, and ivisse. See § 162, 7. 

2. In the passive voice are found the infinitive m, and the third persons 
singular itury ibdtur, ibitur, itum est, Slc. ; edtur, iretur, &c., which are used 
impersonally. 

3. The compounds of eo, including veneo, are conjugated like the sim- 
ple verb, but most of them have ii in the perfect rather than ivi. (See 
§ 176.) Jldeo, ineo, prcetereo, suheo, and transeo, being used actively, are 
found in the passive voice. Inietur occurs as a future passive of ineo. 
^mbio is regular, like audio. 

Queo and nequeo are conjugated like co, but they want the imperative 
mood and the gerund, and their participles rarely occur. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

<5> 183, Defective verbs are those which are not used 
in certain tenses, numbers, or persons. 



140 BEFECTIVE VERBS. 

There are many verbs which are not found in all the tenses, numbers, 
and persons, exhibited in the paradigms. Some, not originally defective^ 
are considered so, because they do not occur in the classics now extant. 
Others are in their nature defective. Thus, the first and second persons 
of many verbs in the passive voice must be wanting, from the nature of 
their signification. 

The following list contains such verbs as are remarkable for 
wanting many of their parts : — > 

1. Odi, I hate, 1 . Quaeso, I pray. 12. Confit, it is done, 

2. Cospi, I have begun. 8. Ave, ) i y 13. De&tj it is wanting. 

3. Memmi, I remember. 9. Salve, 5 ^^ ' 14. In^tj he begins. 

4. Aio, \ r / ^^' Apage, begone. 15. Ovat, he rejoices. 

5. Inquam, 5 ^^^' 11- Cedo, tell, or give 

6. Fari, to speak. me. 

1. Odi, coepij and memmi, are used chiefly in the perfect and 
in the other parts formed from the second root, and are thence* 
called preteritive verbs : — Thus, 

Ifij). perf. o'-di or o'-sus sum; plup. od'-e-ram; fut. perf. od'-e-ro. 
SvBJ. perf, od'-e-rim; plup. o-dis'-sem. Inf. perf. o-dis'-se. 
Part. fut. o-su'-rus ; perf. o'-sus. 
Note. Exosus and perosus, like osus, are used actively. Odlvit, for 
odit, occurs in Cicero. 

2. iNB.perf. coe'-pi; plup. ccdT^^-e-Ta^m ; fut. perf . coep^-e-ro. 

SuBj. perf coep'-e-rim; plup. cce-pis'-sem. Iht. perf ccB-pis^-se. 

Part. fut. coep-tu'-rus ; perf. coep'-tus. 
Note. In Plautus are found a present, coepio, present subjunctive, 
ccepiam, and infinitive ccspere. Before an infinitive passive, casptum est, 
&c., rather than ccepi, &c., are commonly used. 

3. Ind. perf. mem'-i-ni ; plup. me-min'-e-ram ; fut. perf. me-min^-^-ro. 
QvBJ. perf me-min'-e-rim ; plup. mem-i-nis'-sem. 

l^F.perf mem-i-nis'-se. 

Imperat. 2pers. me-men'-to, mem-en-to'-te. 
Note. Odi and memmi have, in the perfect, the sense of the present, 
and, in the pluperfect and future perfect, the sense of the imperfect and 
future. In this respect, novi, I know, the perfect of nosco, to learn, agrees 
with odi and memmi. 

4. l^D.pres. ai'-o,* a'-is,t a^-it ; •, , ai^-unt.* 

imp. ai-e^-bam, ai-e'-bas, ai-e'-bat ; — , ai-e-ba^-tis, ai-e'-bajit. 

SuBJ. pres. , ai'-as, ai'-at ; , — — , ai'-ant. 

Imperat. a'-i. Part. pres. ai^-ens. 

5. Ind. pres. in^-quam or in'-qui-o,in'-quis,in^-quit;in'-qui-mus, in'-qui- 

tis, in^-qui-unt. 

imp. , , in-qui-e'-bat ; , , -, 

fut. , in^-qui-es, in'-qui-et } , , . 

perf ", in-quis'-ti, in'-quit > , , . 

SuBJ. pres. , , in'-qui-at ; , -- — , . 

Imperat. in'-que, in'-qui-to. 

• Pronounced a'-yo, a'-yunt, &c. See § 9. t o.is with ne is contracted to oiV. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



141 



6. Ind. pres. . , fa'-tur ; fut. fa'-bor, , fab'-i-tur. 

Imperat. fa'-re. Part. pres. fans ; perf. fa'-tus ; fut. fan'-dus. 
Infin. pres. fa'-ri. Gerund, o-e?i. fan'-di ; ahl. fan'-do. Supine, fa'-lu. 

In like manner the compounds affdri, effdri, and profari. 

7. Ind. pres. quas'-so, , quse'-sit; quaes'-u-mus, , . 

luF. pres. quass'-e-re. 

8. Imperat. a'-ve, a-ve^-to ; a-ve'-te. Inf. a-ve'-re. 

9. Ind. pres. sal'-ve-o ; fut. sal-ve'-bis. Inf. pres. sal-v6'-re. 
Imperat. sal'-ve, sal-ve'-to ; sal-ve'-te. 

10. Imperat. ap'-a-ge. 

11. Imperat. sing. a,nd plur. ce'-do; pi. ceV-te for ced'-i-te. 

12. l^iD.pres. con'-fit; fut. con-fi'-et. 

SvBj. pres. con-f r-at : imperf con-fi^-e-ret. Inf. ^rc5. con-fi'-S-rL 

13. IsD. pres. de^-fit ; pi. de-fl'-unt. Subj. pres. de-fl'-at. 
Inf. pres. de-fi'-e-ri. 

14. Ind. pres. in'-fit ; pi. in-fl^-unt. 

15. IiiD. pres. o'-vat. Svbj. pres. o'-vet; imperf o-va'-ret. 
Fart. pres. o'-vans ; per/*, o-va'-tus. Gerund, o-van'-di. 

Remark 1. Among defective verbs are sometimes, also, included the 
following: — For em , fores, &c., /ore, (see §15^, 3.) Ausim, ausit ; ausint. 
Faxo3indfaxim,faxiSjfaxityfaximuSjfaxUis,faxint. Faxem. The form 
in o is an old future perfect : that in im a perfect, and that in em a plu- 
perfect, subjunctive. See § 162, 9. 

2. In the present tense, the first person singular, furo, to be mad, and 
dor and der, from do, to give, are not used. 

3. A few words, sometimes classed with defectives, are formed by con- 
traction from a verb and the conjunction si ; as, sis for si vis^ sultis for ^ 
miltis, sodes for si audes. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

<5i 184* Impersonal verbs are those which are used only 
in the third person singular, and do not admit of a per- 
sonal subject. 

1. Their Enghsh is generally preceded by the pronoun it, 
especially in the active voice ; as, delectat, it delights ; decet^ it 
becomes; contingit, it happens; evenit, it happens; scribitur^ 
it is written, &lc. 

They are thus conjugated : — 



Ind. 





1st Conj. 


Pres. 


delectat. 


Imp. 


delectabat. 


Fut. 


delectabit, 


Perf 


delectavit, 


Plnp. 


delectaverat. 



Fut. perf. delectaverit. 



2d Conj. 


3d Conj. 


4th Conj. 


decet, 


contingit. 


evenit. 


decebat, 


contingebat. 


eveniebat, 


decebit, 


continget, 


eveniet, 


decuit, 


contigit, 


evenit. 


decuerat; 


contigerat, 


evenerat, 


decuerit. 


contiofSrit. 


evenerit 



142 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



1^^ Conj. 2d Conj. Sd Conj. 4th Conj. 

Sub. Pres. delectet, deceat, contingat, eveniat, 

Imp. delectaret, deceret, contingeret, evenlret, 

Perfr delectaverit, decuerit, contigerit, evenerit, 

Plup. delectavisset. decuisset. contigisset. evenisset. 

Inf. Pres. delectare, decere, contingere, evenire, 

Perf. delectavisse. decuisse. contigisse. evenisse. 

2. As the passive voice of an active verb may be substituted 
for the active, (see § 141, Rem.) so that of a neuter verb may 
be used in the third person singular, instead of the active form, 
the personal subject of the latter being put in the ablative with 
the preposition a or ah ; as, faveo tibi, I favor thee, or favetur 
tihi a me, thou art favored by me. 







Indicative 


Mood. 




Pres. 


pugnatur, 


favetur, 


curritur. 


venltur. 


Imp. 


pugnabatTir, 


favebatur. 


currebatur, 


veniebatur, 


Fut. 


pugnabitur, 


favebitur, 


curretur. 


venietur. 


Perf. 


pugnatum est 


fautum est or 


cursum est or 


ventum est or 




or fuit, 


fuit, 


fuit, 


fuit, 


Plup. 


pugnatum erat 


fautum erat or 


cursum erat 


ventum erat or 




or fuerat, 


fuerat, 


or fuerat, 


fuerat. 


Fut.p. pugnatum erit 


fautum erit or 


cursum erit or 


ventum erit or 




or fuerit. 


fuerit. 
Subjunctive 


fuerit. 
Mood. 


fuerit. 


Pres. 


pugnetur, 


faveatur. 


curratur, 


veniatur. 


Imp. 


pugnaretur, 


faveretur, 


curreretur, 


veniretur. 


Perf. 


pugnatum sit or 


fautum sit or 


cursum sit or 


ventum sit ar 




fuerit, 


fuerit, 


fuerit. 


fuerit. 


Plup. 


pugnatum esset 


fautum esset 


cursum esset 


ventum esset 




or fuisset. 


or fuisset. 


or fuisset. 


or fuisset. 






Infinitive Mood. 




Pres. 


pugnari, 


faveri, 


curri, 


venlri, 


Perf 


pugnatum esse 


fautum esse 


cursum esse 


ventum esse or 




or fuisse, 


or fuisse, 


or fuisse. 


fuisse, 


Fut. 


pugnatum iri. 


fautum iri. 


cursum iri. 


ventum iri. 



In like manner the neuter gender of the participle in dus^ 
formed from neuter verbs, is used impersonally with est, &lc., 
in the periphrastic conjugation ; as, moriendum est omnibus, all 
must die. See § 162, 15. 



RemarJcs. 

1. Grammarians usually reckon only ten. real impersonal verbs, all of 
which are of the second conjugation. (See § 169.) There seems, how- 
ever, to be no good reason for distinguishing those from other impersonal 
verbs. The following are such other verbs as are most commonly used 
impersonally : — 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 143 

(a.) In the first conjugation ; — 

Constat, it is evident. Spectat, it concerns. Certatur, it is Contend- 
Juvat, it delights. Stat, it is resolved. ed. 

Praestat, it is better. Vacat, there is leisure. Peccatur, a fault is 

Restat, it remains. committed. 

(b.) In the second conjugation ; — 

Apparet, it appears. Solet, it is usvmI. 

Attinet, it belongs to. Nocet, it is hurtful. Fletur, there is weep- 

Debet, it ought. Patet, it is plain. ing. 

Displicet, it displeases. Peitinet, it pertains. Persuadetur. {See 
Dolet, it grieves. Placet, it pleases. above, 2.) 

(c.) In the third conjugation ; — 
Accidit, it happens. Creditur, it is believed. Mittitur, it is sent, 

Incipit, it begins. Desinitur, there is an Scribitur, it is written. 

Sufficit, it suffices. end. 

(d.) In the fourth conjugation ; — 

Convenit, it is agreed on. Aperltur, it is opened. 

Expedit, it is expedient. Sentltur, it is meant. 

(e.) Among irregular verbs ; — 

Abeundum est, it is ne- Fit, it happens. Prodest, it avails. 

cessary to depart. Interest, it concerns. Refert, it concerns. 

Aditur. {See above, 2.) Obest, it is hurtful. Superest, it remains, 

(/.) To these may be added verbs signifying the state of the weather, or 
the operations of nature j as, 

Fulgiirat, it lightens. Lapidat, it rains stones. Regelat, it thaws, 

Fulminat, it thunders. Liucescit, it grows light. Tonat, it thunders. 
Gelat, it freezes. Ningit, it snows. Vesperascit, it ap- 

Grandinat, it hails. Pluit, it rains. proaches evening. 

2. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take the sub- 
junctive in its stead ; as, delectet, let it delight. In the passive voice, their 
perfect participles are used only in the neuter. 

3. Most of the impersonal verbs want participles, gerunds and supines ; 
but poBnitet has a present participle, futures in rus and dus, and the gerund. 
Pudet and plget have also the gerund 

4. Most of the above verbs are also used personally, but frequently in a 
somewhat different sense ; as, m^ Tiberis inter eos et pons inter esset, so 
that the Tiber and bridge were between them. 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 

<§> 185. Redundant verbs are those which have differ- 
ent forms to express the same sense. 

Verbs may be redundant in termination ; as, fahrico and 
fahricor, to frame ; — in conjugation ; as, lavo, -drey and lavOy 
-ere, to wash ; — or in certain tenses ; as, odi and osus suniy I 
hate. 



144 



eeduindant verbs . 



1. The following 
have an active in o, 
ever, is, in general, 

Adulor, to flatter. 
Altercor, to dispute. 
Amplexor, to embrace. 
Assentior, to assent. 
Aucupor, to hunt after. 
Auguror, to foretell. 
Cachinnor, to laugk 

aloud. 
Comitor J to accompany. 



deponent verbs, besides their passive form^ 
of the same meaning. The latter, how- 
rarely used; 



Cunctor, to delay. 
Depascor, to feed upon. 
Elucubror, to elaborate. 
Fabricor, to frame. 
Frustror, to disappoint. 
Fruticor, to sprout. 
Impertior, to impart. 
Lachrjmor, to weep. 
Ludif icor, to ridicule. 



Medicor, to heal. 
Mereor, to deserve. 
Metor, to measure. 
Palpor, to caress. 
Populor, to lay waste. 
Ruminor, to ruminate. 
Velif icor, to set sail. 
Vociferor, to bawL 
Urinor, to dive. 



2. The following verbs are redundant in conjugation : — 

Strideo, -ere, ) to 



. .. Fiilffeo, -ere, } to 
> to excite. 17. 1 ' - } T.' 

r ulgo, -ere. r. ) shine. 



Cieo, -ere, ") 

Cio, -Ire, r. ) 

Denso, -are, "> to Lavo, -are, > , 

Denseo, -ere jY. y thicken. Lavo, -ere, r. ) ^^ 

Ferveo, -ere, ") to Lino, -ere, ") to 

Fervo, -ere, r. ) boil. Linio, -Ire, r. ) anoint. 

Fodio, -ere, } _, ■,. Scateo, -ere, ) to 



Stride, -ere, 5 creak.- 
Tergo,-ere, ) 



Tergeo, -ere. 



Fodio, -ire. 



Scato, -ere, r. ) abound 



I 



> to wipe. 

Those marked r. are 
rarely used. 



Morior, orior, and potior, also, are redundant in conjugation in certain 
parts. See in lists § § 174 and 177. 

<§> 186« 1. Some verbs, also, are spelled alike, or nearly 
alike, but differ in conjugation, quantity, pronunciation, or 
signification, or in two or more of these respects. 

Such are the following : — 



Abdico, -are, to abdi- CsLneOj-eiejto bcwhite. 

cate. Careo, -ere, to want. 

Abdico, -ere, to refuse. Caro, -ere, to cardicool. 

Accido, -ere, to hap- Celo, -are, to conceal. 

pen. Caelo, -are, to carve. 

Accido, -ere, to cut Censeo, -ere, to think. 

short. Sentio, -ire, to feel. 

Addo, -ere, to add. Claudo, -ere, to shut. 

Adeo, -ire, to go to. Claudo, -ere, to be lame. Desipio, -ere, to dote. 

Aggero, -are, to heap Colligo, -are, to tie Deligo, -are, to tie up. 

up» together. Deligo, -ere, to choose. 

Aggero, -ere, to heap Colligo, -ere , to collect. Biligo, -ere, to love. 

upon. Colo, -are, to strain. Dlco> -ere, to say. 

Allege, -are, to depute. Colo, -ere, to cultivate. Dico, -are, to dedicate. 

Allego, -ere, to choose. Compello, -are, to ac- Edo, -ere, to eat. 

Appello J -aire, to call. cost. Edo, -^ve, to publish. 

Appello, -ere, to drive Compello, -ere, to force. EdUco, -are, to educate. 

to. Concido, -ere, to chop Educo, -ere, to draw 
Cado, -ere, to fall. off. out. 

C^do, -ere, to cut. Concido, -ere, to fall. EfFero, -are, io make 

Cedo, -ere, to yield. Conscendo, -ere, to loild. 

Caleo, -ere, to be hot. climb. Eifero, -re, to carry out. 

Calleo, -ere, to be hard. Conscindo, -ere to cut Excido, -ere, to fallout 

C^iio, -eie, to sing. in pieces. ^xcido^ -ere, to cutoff. 



Consterno, -are, to ter- 
rify. 

Consterno, -ere, to 
strew over. 

Decide, -ere, to fall 
down. 

Decido, -ere, to cut off. 

Decipio,-ere, to deceive. 



REDUNDANT VERBS. 



145 



Ferio, -ire, to strike. 

F6ro, -re, to hear. 

Ferior, -ari, to keep hol- 
iday 

Frigeo, -ere, to he cold. 

Frigo, -ere, to fry. 

Fugo, -are, to put to 
flight. 

Fugio, -ere, to fly 

Fundo, -are, to found. 

Fundo, -ere, to pour out. 

Incido, -ere, to fall into. 

Incldo, -ere, to cut, 

Indico, -are, to show. 

Indico, -ere, to pro- 
claim. 

Tnficio, -ere, to infect. 

Infitior, -ari, to deny. 

Intercido, -ere, to hap- 
pen. 

Intercldo, -ere, to cut 
asunder. 

Jaceo, -ere, to lie down. 

Jacio, -ere, to throw. 

Labo, -are, to totter. 

Labor, -i, to glide. 

Lacto, -are, to suckle. 

Lacto, -are, to deceive. 

Lego, -are, to send. 

Lego, -ere, to read. 

Liceo, -ere, to he lawful. 

Liceor, -eri, to hid for. 

Liquo, -are, to melt. 

Liqueo, -ere, to he man- 
ifest. 

Liquor, -i, to melt. 

Mano, -are, to flow. 



Maneo, -ere, to stay. 

Mando, -are, to command. 

Mando, -ere, to eat. 

Me to, -ere, to reap. 

Me tor, -ari, to measure. 

Metior, -iri, to measure. 

Metuo, -ere, to fear. 

Miseror, -ari, to pity. 

Misereor, -eri, to pity. 

Moror, -ari, to delay. 

Morior, -i, to die. 

Niteo, -ere, to glitter. 

Nitor, -i, to strive. 

Obsero, -are, to lock up. 

Obsero, -ere, to sow. 

Occido, -ere, to fall. 

Occido, -ere, to kill. 

Operio, -ere, to cover. 

Operor, -ari, to work. 

Opperior, -Tri, to wait 
for. 

Pando, -are, to bend. 

Pando, -ere, to open. 

Paro, -are, to prepare. 

Pareo, -ere, to appear. 

Pario, -ere, to bring 
forth. 

Pario, -are, to balance. 

Pendeo, -ere, to hang. 

Pendo, -ere, to weigh. 

Percolo, -are, to filter. 

Percolo, -ere, to adorn. 

Permaneo, -ere, to re- 
main. 

Permano, -are, to flow 
over. 

Praedico, -are, to publish. 



Prsedico, -^re, to fore- 
tell. 

Prodo, -ere, to betray. 

Prodeo, -ire, to come 
forth. 

Recedo, -ere, to retire. 

Recido, -6re, to fall 
back. 

Recido, -ere, to cut off. 

Red do, -ere, to restore. 

Redeo, -Ire, to return. 

Refero, -re, to bring 
back. 

Referio, -ire, to strike 
back. 

Relego, -are, to remove. 

Relego, -ere, to read 
over. 

Sedo, -are, to allay. 

Sedeo, -ere, to sit. 

Si do, -ere, to sink. 

Sero, -ere, to sow. 

Sero, -ere, to knit. 

Succido, -ere, to fall 
down. 

Succido, -ere, to cut 
down. 

Vado, -ere, to go. 

Vador, -ari, to give bail. 

Veneo, -Ire, to be sold. 

Venio, -Ire, to come. 

Venor, -ari, to hunt. 

Vincio, -ire, to bind. 

Vinco, -ere, to conquer 

Volo, -are, to fly. 

Volo, velle, to be will- 
in o-. 



2. Different verbs have sometimes the same perfect ; as, 



Aceo, acui, to be sour. 
Acuo, acui, to sharpen. 
Cresco, crevi, to groic. 
Cerno, crevi, to decree. 
Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. 
Fulcio, fulsi, to jjrop. 



Luceo, luxi, to shine. 
Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. 
Mulceo, mulsi, to 

soothe. 
Mulgeo, mulsi, to milk. 
Paveo, pavi, to fear. 



Pasco, pavi, to feed. 
Pendeo, pependi, to 

hang. 
Pendo, pependi, to 

iceigh. 



To these add some of the compounds of sto and sisto. 

3. Different verbs have sometimes, also, the same supine or 
perfect participle ; as. 



Cresco, cretum, to crroic. 
Cerno, cretum, to decree. 
Maneo, mansum, to remain. 
Mando, mansum, to chew. 
Pango, pactum, to drive in. 
Paciscor, pactus, to bargain. 
13 



Pando, passum, to open. 
Patior, passus, to suffer. 
Teneo. tentum, to hold. 
Tendo, tentum, to stretch 
Verro, versum, to brush. 
Verto, versum, to turn. 



146 DERIVATION OF VERBS, 



DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

<§) 187. Verbs are derived either from nouns, adjectives, or 
other verbs. 

1. Verbs derived from nouns or adjectives are called 
denominatives, 

I. Those which are active are generally of the first conjuga- 
tion ; those which are neuter of the second. They are usually 
formed by adding o or eo to the root ; as, 

Actives from JS^ouns. JVeuiers from JVouns. 

ArmOj to arm, (arma.) Floreo, to hloom, (flos.) 

Fraudo, to defraud, (fraus.) Frondeo, to produce leaves^ (frons.) 

Nomino, to name, (nomen.) Luceo, to shine, (lux.) 

Numero, to number, (numerus.) Vireo, to flourish, (vis.) 

FYom Adjectives. 
Albo, to whiten, (albas.) Albeo, to be white, (albus.) 

Ceiebro, to celebrate, (celeber.) Calveo, to be bald, (calvus.) 

Libero, to free, (liber.) Flaveo. to be yellow^ (flaviis.) 

Sometimes a preposition is prefixed in forming the deriva- 
tive ; as, 

Coacervo, to hap together, (acer- Extirpo, to extirpate, (stirps.) 

vus.) Illaqueo, to in^snare, (laqueus.) 

Excavo, to excavate, (cavus.) 

2. Many deponents of the first conjugation, derived from nouns, express 
the exercise of the character, office, &c. denoted by the primitive ; as, 
GTchitector, to build : covntor, to accompany ; furor, to steal ; from archi- 
tectus. comes, a.ndfL>7\ 

3. Such as denote resemblance or imitation are called imitatives ; as, 
cornicor, to imitate a crow, from comix ; Graicor, to imitate the Greeks. 
Some of these end in isso ; a.s, patrisso, to imitate a father. 

II. Verbs derived from other verbs are either frequenfatives, 
inceptives, desideratives, diminutives, or intensives. 

1. Frequent atives express the frequent repetition of the 
action denoted by the primitive. 

They are all of the first conjugation, and are formed from the 
third root. In verbs of the first conjugation, dtu is changed 
into ito, rarely into o ; as, clamo, to cry, {clamdtu,) clamito, 
to cry frequently ; no, to swim, (natu,) nato. In verbs of the 
other three conjugations, u is changed into o, rarely into ito ; 
as, curro, to run, {cursu,) curso, or cursito, to run frequently. 

Some are derived from the present, or perhaps from an obsolete third 
root ; as, ago, {agltu,) agUo ; cogo, cogito. 



COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 147 

Some frequentatives are deponent ; as, muiUor, froxn viitior {inindtu) ; 
versor, from verto (versu). So sector ^ loqultor, from liquor and loqaor. 

Verbs of this class do not always express frequenc}^ of action, but have 
sometimes nearly the same meaning as their primitives. 

2. Iticeptives, or inchoatives^ mark the beginning, or increased 
degree of the action or state expressed by the primitive. 

They all end in sco, and are formed by adding that termina- 
tion to the root of the primitive, with its connecting vowel, 
which, in the third conjugation, is i; as, caleo, to be hot; 
calcscOj to grow hot. 

So labo, labasco ; ingcmo, ingcmisco ; chdormlo, ohdorviisco. Hlsco is 
contracted for hiasco, from hio. 

Most inceptives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation. 

Some inceptives are formed from nouns and adjectives, by adding asco 
or csco to the root ', as, puerasco, from pucr ; juz'cjiesco, from juvenis. 

Some inceptives have the same meaning as their primitives; as, adhce- 
resco. 

Note. Inceptives are all neuter, and of the third conjugation. See § 173. 

Some verbs in sco which are not inceptives are active ; as, disco, posco. 

3. Desideratives express a desire of doing the act denoted by 
the primitive. 

They are formed from the third root, by shortening the final 
M, and adding rio ; as, ccbuo, to sup, (ccendtii,) ccenaturio, to. 
desire to sup. 

Desideratives are all of the fourth conjugation. See § 176, Note. 
Verbs in urio^ having u long, are not desideratives ; as, prurio, decurio. 

4. Diminutives denote a feeble or trifling action. They are 
formed by adding illo to the root of the primitive ; as, cantillOy 
to sing a little — fi-om canto. 

They are few in number, and are all of the first conjugation. 

5. Inte?isives denote eager action. They are usually formed 
by adding esso or isso to the root of the primitive ; as, facesso, 
to act earnestly — from f ado. 

So capesso, arcesso, from capio and arceo. Conci/piscOj to desire greatly, 
is also an intensive. 



COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 

^ 188. Verbs are compounded variously : — 

1. Of a noun and a verb; as, cedifico, helligerOy lucrifacio. 

2. Of an adjective and a verb ; as, ampJifico, multipUcOy 
vilipendo. 

3. Of two verbs; as, calefacio, madefacio, patefacio. 

4. Of an adverb and a verb ; as, henefacio, maledico, sctdgo, 
nolo. 



Jacto, 


Pario, 


Patro, 


Spargo, 


Lacto. 


Partio, 


Sacro, 


Tracto. 


Mando. 


Patior, 


Scando, 





Ago, 


Capio. 


Habeo, 


Pango, 


Apiscor, 


Egeo, 


Jacio, 


Placeo, 


Cado, 


Emr, 


Lacio, 


Premo, 


Caedo, 


Fateor, 


Laedo, 


Queer 0, 


Cano, 


Fran go J 


Lateo, 


Rapio, 



148 COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 

5. Of a preposition and a verb ; as, adduco, excolo, prodo, 
suhrepo, discerno, sejungo. 

6. Of a preposition and a noun ; as, pernocto, irretio. 

^ 189. In composition, certain changes often occur in the 
radical letters of the simple verb. 

1. The following simple verbs in composition change a into e : 

Arceo, Carpo, Farcio, 
CandeOj Daniiio, Fatiscor. 
Capto, Fallo, G-radior, 

Exc. A is retained in amando. prcBinayido, desacro, a.nd retracto ; prcB- 
damno and pertracto sometimes also occur. A is also changed intoe in 
depeciscor from paciscor, occento from canto, and anlitlo frora halo ; com- 
perco also is found. 

2. The following change a, «, and e, into i : 

Rego, Statue, 

Salio, (to leapy) Taceo, 

Sapio, Tango, 

Sedeo, Teneo. 
Specio, 

Exc. A is retained in circumdgo, perdgo, satdgo ; antehaheo, posthabeo ; 
depango, repango ; complaceo and perplaceo. Occdno and recdno also some- 
times occur. E is retained in coemo^ clrcumsedeo, and supersedeo. Ante 
capio and anticipo are both used ; so also are superjacio and superjicio. 

Cogo and dego are formed, by contraction, from con, de, and ago ; demOy 
promo, and sumo, from de, pro, sub, and emo ; prceheo, and perhaps debeo, 
from prcB, de, and habeo ; pergo and surgo, from per, sub, and rego. 

Note 1. Facio, compounded with a preposition, changes a into i ; as, 
officio. Some compounds of facio with nouns and adjectives, change a 
into i, and also drop i before o, and are of the first conjugation ; as, signi- 
fico, l(Etifico,magnifico. Specio forms some compounds in the same man- 
ner ; as, conspicor and suspicor. 

Note 2. Lego, compounded with con, de, di, e, inter, nee, and se, changes 
e into i; as, colllgo, negligo, &c. ; but with ad, prce, per, re, sub, and trans, 
it retains e; as, allego. 

Note 3. Calco and salto, in composition, change a into u; as, inculco, 
insulto. Plaudo chsinges an into o; as, explodo ; except applaudo. Audio 
changes «M into c in obedio. Causo, claudo, and quatio, drop a ; as, accuse, 
recludo, percutio. Jaro changes u into e in dejero and pejero. 

Note 4. The simple verbs with which the following are 
compounded are not used : — 

Defendo, Impedio, Confato, Instigo, Conniveo, 

OfFendo, Imbuo, Refuto, Impleo, Perceilo, 

Experior, Compello, (-are.) Ingruo, Compleo, Induo, and some 

Expedio, Appello, (-are,) Congruo, Renideo, Exuo, others. 

For the changes produced in prepositions by composition with verbs, 
see § 196, I. 



ADVERBS. 



149 



PARTICLES, 

^ 190. The parts of speech which are not inflected, are 
called by the general name of particles. They are adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. A word may 
sometimes belong to two or more of these classes, according to 
its connection. 



ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a particle used to modify or limit the mean- 
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, bene ei 
sapienter dixit^ he spoke well and wisely ; egregie Jidelis^ 
remarkably faithful ; valde bene, very well. 

Remark. The modifications of adjectives and verbs which are effected 
by adverbs, may also generally be made by means of the oblique cases of 
nouns and adjectives : and many modifications may be denoted by these, 
for expressing which no adverbs are in use. In general, those modifica- 
tions which are most common are expressed by adverbs. Thus, for cum 
sapientld, sapienter is used; hic, for in hoc loco ; ben^ , for in bono modo ; 
nunc, for Jwc tempore, &c. 

Adverbs are divided into various classes, according to the 
nature of the modification denoted by them; as adverbs of 
placBf time, manner, &>c. 

'^j 1 9 1 • The following lists contain a great part of the more 
common adverbs, except those which are formed, with certain 
regular terminations, from nouns, adjectives, and participles. 
These will be noticed subsequently. 

I. Adverbs of Place and Order, 



Alia, by another way. 

Alibi, elsewhere. 

Alicubi, somewhere. 

Alicunde, from some 
place. 

Alio, to another place. 

Allquo, to some place. 

Aliunde, from else- 
where. 

Dehinc, henceforth. 

Deinceps, successively. 

Deinde, after that. 

Deniqne, finally. 

Denuo, again. 

Deorsum, downward. 

Dextrorsum, toioards 
the right. 

Ek, that way. 

13* 



E6, to that place. 
Eodem, to the same 

place. 
Exinde, after that. 
Foras, out of doors. 
Foris, without. 
Hac, this icay. 
Hie, here. 
Hinc, hence. 
Hue, hither. 
Horsum, hitherward. 
Ibi, there. \j)luce. 

Ibidem, in the same 
Hike, that way. 
Illic, there, 
Illinc, thence. 
Illorsum, thitherward. 
1116, thither. 



Illuc, thither. 
Inde, then, thence. 
Indidem,yVom the same 
place. 

IntrLum, I «"■'*»'»• 
Intus, vnthin. 
Istac, that loay. 
Istic, there. 
Istinc, thence, 

Necubi, lest any where 
Neutro, neither way, 
Nusquam, nx) where, 
Porro, moreover, 
Prorsum , forward. 
Qua ? by lohich loay ? 



150 



ADVERBS. 



Quo ? lohither 7 
Quorsum? ichithcricard? 
RetrO; ^ 

Retrorsum, > backioard. 
Rursum, ) 
Sicubi, if any where. 
Sicunde, if from any 
place. 



Sinistrorsum, towards 

the left. 
Sursum, upward. 
Ubi ? where 7 
Ubique, every where. 
Ubi vis, any where. 
Unde ? whence 7 
Undique,/r(??7i all sides. 



Vm^, \ any where. 
Usquam, ) ^ 

Utrinque, on both sides. 

Utro ? which way ? 

Utrobi ? in which plaxe ? 

Utroblque, in both 

places. 

Utroque, each way. 



Remark 1. Most adverbs of place which answer the ques- 
tions lohere ? ivheiice 7 icliither 1 hy which way ? and whith- 
erward? have a mutual relation and resemblance : — Thus, 



Ubi? 
Hic, 

Illic, 

IstlCj 

Ibi, 

Ibidem. 
Alibi, ' 
Alicubi, 



Unde ? 

Hinc. 

Illinc, 

Istinc, 

Inde, 

Indidem, 

Aliunde, 

Alicunde, 



Quo? 
Hue. 
Illue, 
Istuc. 

E6, 

Eodem, 
Alio, 
All quo, 



Qua? 
Hkc, 

Iliac, 

Istkc, 

Ea, 

Eadem, 

Alia, 

All qua, 



Quorsum ? 
Horsum, 
Illorsum, 
Istorsum, 



Aliorsum, 
Aliquoversum. 



Rem. 2. HiCy hinc, hue, refer to the place of the speaker ; 
istic, istinc, istuc, to the place of the person addressed; and 
illic, illinc, illuc, to that of the person or thing spoken of. 

II. Adverbs of Time, 



Aliquando, sometimes. 
Aliquoties, several 

times. 
Bis, (see § 119.) twice. 
Cras, to-morrow. 
Cum, when. 
Demum, at length. 
Diu, long. 
Dudum, heretofore. 
Heri, yesterday. 
Hodie, to-day. 
Identidem, now and 

then. 
Illico, immediately. 
Interdum, sometimes. 
Interim, in the mean 

time. 
Iterum, again. 
Jam, now. 
Jamdiu, } , 



Jamjam, presently. 

Jampridem, long since. 

Mox, immediately. 

Nondum, not yet. 

Nonnunquam, some- 
times. 

Nudius tertius, three 
days ago. 

Nunc, noiD. 

Nunquam, never. 

Nuper, lately. 

Olim, formerly. 

Parumper, a little while. 

Perendie, two days 
hence. 

Postridie, the day after. 

Pridem, heretofore. 

Pridie, the day before. 

Protinus, instantly. 

Quamdiu ? how long ? 



Quater./oMr times. 
Q,uonda,m, formerly. 
Quotidie, daily. 
Quoties ? how often ? 
Raro, seldom. 
Rursus, again. 
Saspe, often. 
Semel, once. 
Semper, always. 
Statim, immediately. 
Subinde,7io?o and then, 

frequently. 
Tamdiu, so long. 
Tandem, at length. 
Ter, thrice. 
Toties, so often. 

Vicissim, by turns. 
Unquam, ever. 



Quando ? when ? 

Rem. 3. Some adverbs are used to denote either place, time, or order, 
according to the connection : — Thus, 

Ubi may signify either where or when ; inde, from that place or time ', 
hactenus, hitherto, in regard to place or time. 

Rem. 4. The interrogative adverbs, like the interrogative pronouns, 
are often used indefinitely ; as, nescio ubi sit, I know not where he is. 
(See § 137. Note.) They are made general by adding vis, libet, or que ; 



DKRIVATION OF ADVERBS. 



151 



US, uhXvi>Sj ublgue, every where ; undclihet^ from every where. The ter- 
mination cunqtic is equivalent to tlie English soever ; a.s,ubicunque, where- 
soever. The repetition of an adverb has sometimes the same effect ; as, 
quoqud, whithersoever ) ubiubi, wheresoever. 



III. Adverbs of 

Ade5, so, to such a pass. 
Admodum, very much. 
Allter. othericise. 
An .? whether 7 
Ceu, as, like as. 
Cur .'' why ? 
Duntaxat, only, at least. 
Etiam, truly, yes. 
Fere, almost. 
Ferme, almost, nearly. 
Fortasse, perhaps. 
Frustra, in vain. 
Gratis, freely. 
Hand, not. 
Immo, yes, truly. 
Ita, so. 

Itidem, in like manner. 
Juxta, alike. 
Magis, more. 
Modo, only. 
Nae, verily. 
Ne, not. 

Nedum, much less. 
Nempe, to wit, truly. 
Nequaquam, "> by no 
Neutiquam, J rneans. 
Nimlrum, certainly. 
Nimis, too much. 



Manner, Quality, &/C. 

Nimium, too much. 

Non, not. 

Num ^ whether 7 

Ommno, altogether, only. 

Palam, openly. 

Pariter, equally. 

Parum, littl&. 

Paula tim, by degrees. 

Paulo, ) ,.^^7 

Paulum, r '^"-^ 

Paene, almost. 

Penitus, within, wholly. 

Perquam, very much. 

PlerCimque, for the 
Tnost part. 

Potius, rather. 

PraBsertim, especially. 
' Profecto, truly. 

Prope, almost, near. 

Propemodum, almost. 

Prorsus, wholly. 

Qukm, as. 

Quamobrem, lohere- 
fore. 

Quare.'' why 7 where- 
fore 7 

Quasi, as if, almost. 

Quemadmodum, as. 



Quomodo.? how 7 in 

2vhat manner ? 
Sane, truly. 
Satis, enough. 
Satius, rather^ 
Scilicet, truly. 
Secus, otherwise. 
Seorsum, separately. 
Sic, so. 
Sicut, > 
Sicuti,)"^^' 
Sigillatim, one by one. 
Simul, together. 
Solum, only. 
Tarn, so. 
Tanquam, as if 
Tantum, ) j 

Tantummodo, J ^''^' 
Una, together, 
Ut, as. 
Uti, as. 

Vtiqne, therefore, verily. 
Utpote, as, inasmuch 05. 
Valde, very much. 

Videlicet, certainly. 
Vix, scarcely. 



Rem. 5. Adverbs denoting quality, manner, &c., are sometimes di 
vided into those of, 1. Quality; SiS, beri^, mal^. 2. Certainty; as, cert^, 
plant. 3. Contingence ; SiS,fort^. 4. Negation; SiS, haud, non. 5. Prohi- 
bition; as, we, 6. Swearing; as, hercle. 7. Explaining; a.s,^ videlicet, 
utpote. 8. Separation ; as, seorsum. 9. Joining together ; as, simul, 
una. 10. Interrogation ; as, cur ? quart 7 11. Quantity or degree ; as, 
satis, aded. 12. Excess; as, valde, maximt. 13. Defect; as, pariim, 
pcene. 14. Preference ; as, jjotiiis, satiiis. 15. Likeness ; as, ita, sic 
16. Unlikeness ; as, alUer. 17. Exclusion ; as, tantum, solitm. 



DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

<§» 192. Adverbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

I. From nouns. 

1. Of these a few end in im, and denote manner ; as, 
gregdtim, in herds ; membrdtim, limb by limb ; partim, by parts ; vicis' 
sim, by turns; from grex, membrum, pars, and vicis. 



152 Derivation of adverbs. 

2. Some end in itus, and denote manner or origin ; as, 

cobIUus, from heaven ; fundltus, from the bottom ; radicitus, by the 
roots; from coBlum, fundus, Sind radix. 

3. Some are ablative cases of nouns used adverbially ; as, 
modd^ only ; vulgo, commonly. 

II. From adjectives. 

1. Those which are derived from adjectives of the first and 
second declension, are generally formed by adding e to the root ; 
as, 

(Bgrt, scarcely ; altt, high ; libere, freely ; longe, far ; miser t, miserably ; 
plene, fully ; from (Bger, alius, liber, longus, miser, and plenus. Bene, well, 
is from bonus, or an older form benus. 

A few end in iter, itus, and im ; as, 

naviter, actively ; aliter, otherwise ; antiquitus, anciently ; divivMus, 
divinely ; privdtim, privately ; singuldtim, severally ; from navus, alius, 
antlquus, divlnus, privdtus, and singuli. 

Some adverbs are formed with two or more of the above terminations 
with the same meaning ; as, dure and duriter, harshly : so caute and cau- 
tim; humane, humaniter, and humanitus ; publice amd publicitus. 

2. Adjectives of the third declension form adverbs by adding 
iter to the root, except when it ends in t, in which case er only 
is added ; as, 

acriter, sharply ; feliciter, happily ; turpiter, basely ; — eleganter, ele- 
gantly ; prudenter, prudently ; from acer, felix, turpis, elegans, and pru- 
dens. 

From omnis is formed omnino. 

3. From the cardinal numerals are formed numeral adverbs 
in ies ; as, 

quinquies, decies, from quinque and decern. So toties and quoties, from 
totdind quot. See § 119. 

4. Some adverbs are merely certain cases of adjectives. 
Such are, 

(«.) Ablatives in o or « ; as, cito, quickly ) continuo, immediately ; falsd, 
falsely ; redd, straight on ; und, together. In like manner, repent^, sud- 
denly, from repens. 

(b.) Nominatives or accusatives neuter, in the singular, and sometimes 
in the plural ; as, solum, only ; perfidiim, perfidiously ; sublime, on high; 
faciU, easily; multa, much ; tristia, sadly. 

(c.) From some adjectives of the first and second declension, chiefly 
ordinal adjectives, forms both in um and o are used; as, primum and 
primdj first ; postremum and postremd, finally. 

Note 1. These adverbs are properly adjectives agreeing with some 
noun understood, either definite, as, recta, sc. vid, or indefinite. Those 
in o are the most numerous. The plural forms occur chiefly in poetry. 

Note 2. Some adjectives, from the nature of their signification, have 
no corresponding adverbs. Of some others, also, none occur in the 
classics. 



COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS, 153 

III. From the adjective pronouns are derived adverbs of 
place, &/C. (See § 191, Rem. 1.) 

The ablative in o is used to denote a place whither, instead of the accu- 
sative with a preposition ; as, ed for ad eum locum ; and the ablative in a, 
to denote by or through a place ; as, hac ; vid or parte being understood. 

IV. From participles are derived adverbs denoting manner. 
Those from present participles are formed by adding er to the 
root ; those from perfects by adding 6, and sometimes im ; as, 

amanter, lovingly ; properanter, hastily ; from amans and propirans ; — 
<ioc^(^, learnedly ; orndt^, elegantly; raptim, by rapine ; strictim y closely; 
from doctuSy orndtuSj raptuSj and strictus. 

The ablative in o of some perfect participles, like that of adjectives, 
is used adverbially ; as, auspicdtd^ auspiciously; consultdj designedly. 

Note. A few adverbs are derived from prepositions; as, clancuhimy 
privately ; from clam; — subtuSy beneath; from sub. 



COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

^ 193. Adverbs are compounded variously : — 

1..0f an adjective and a noun ; as, postridie^ magnop^re, summopere, 
muliimddisj qu^tannis — of posttro die^ magno opSre, summo opere^ myitis 
tnodisj quot annis. 

2. Of a pronoun and a noun ; as, kodie, quarry quomodd — of hoc die, 
qud re, &c. 

3. Of an adverb and a noun ; as, nudius, s(spenumSro—o£ nunc dies, 
<fcc. 

4. Of a preposition and a noun; 0,8, comlnu^, emXnus, ilVtco, obviam, 
postmodoj propediem — of con, e, and manu^; in and loco ; ob and mam, &c. 

5. Of an adjective and a pronoun ; as, alidqui, ceteroqui — of alius^ ceter, 
and qui. 

6. Of a pronoun and an adverb ; as, aliquandiu,<ilicyhi — oialiquis, diu, 
and ubi ; nequdquam — -of ne and quisquam. 

7. Of two verbs ; as, iUcet, scilicet, videlicet — of ire, scire, videre, and 
licet. 

8. Of a verb and an adverb ; as, quoUbet, nblvis, undeUbet. So dein- 
ceps — from dein and capio. 

9. Of a participle with various parts of speech; as, deorsum, dextrorsumy 
horsum, retrors^im, sursum — of die, dexter, hie, retro^ super, and vorsus or 
versus. 

10. Of two adverbs; 3iS,jamdudum, quousque, sicut. 

11. Of a preposition and an adjective; as, denuo, imprimis — of de novo, 
in primis. 

12. Of a preposition and a pronoun ; as, quapropter. postea, inter ea, pm- 
terea — of propter quce, post ea, &c. 

13. Of a preposition and an adverb ; as, abhinc, adhuc, derepente, per- 
sispe. 



154 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. PREPOSITIONS. 

14. Of two or three prepositions 3 as, insuper, profinuSy indcy dein^ 
deinde, perinde. 

15. Of a conjunction and an adverb ; as, necuhi, sicuhi — of we, si, and 
alicubi. 

16. Of an adverb and a termination scarcely nsed except in composition ; 
as, ibidem, parumper, quandocunque, uhique, utcunque. 

17. Of three different parts of speech ; as. forsitan — of fors, sit, an ; 
quemadmodum, quamohrem, &c. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

<§> 194. Adverbs derived from adjectives with the termina- 
tions e and ter, and most of those in 0, are compared like their 
primitives. The comparative, like the neuter comparative of 
the adjective, ends in ius ; the superlative is formed from the 
superlative of the adjective by changing us into e ; as, 

dure, durius, durissime ; facile,facilius,facillimh; acriter, acrius, acer- 
Tirnh ; rarb, rariiis, rarisstme.' 

Some adverbs have superlatives in o or um; as, meritissimd, plurimum, 
primd or primum, potisstmiim. 

If the comparison of the adjective is irregular or defective, 
that of the adverb is so likewise ; as, 

bene, melius, optime ; male, pejus, pessimh ; pariim, minus, mmime ; 
multd or multiim, plies, plurimum. ; — ,prius, primd ox primum ; — , ociiis, 
ocissim^ ; meritb, — , meritissimd ; satis, satiiis, — . Magis, maxime^ 
(from magnus,) has no positive ; nuper, nuperrimh, has no comparative. 

Diu and scepe, though not derived from adjectives, are yet compared ; — 
din, diutius, diutissime ; scepe, scepius, scepissime. A comparative tempe 
rius, from temperi or tempori, also sometimes occurs. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes compared by prefix- 
ing magis and maxime ; as, magis aperte, maxime accommodate. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

<§) 195. A preposition is a particle which expresses the 
relation between a noun or pronoun and some preceding 
word. 

Twenty-six prepositions have an accusative after them : — 

Ad, to, aty for, before. Circa, ") around, Ilrga., towards, opposite. 

Adversus, ) against, Ckcum, 3 about. Extra, loithout, beyond^ 

Adversum, 3 towards. Circiter, about, near. besides. 

Ante, before. Cis, ) on this side. Infra, under, beneath. 

Apud, at, icith, among, Citra, J without. Inter, beticeen, amongy 

before. Contisi, against, opposite. at, in time of. 



PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION, 155 

Intra, within. Post, after, since, be- Secundum, according 
Juxta, near. hind. to, along, next to, 

Ob, for, on account of, Praster, beyond, except, for. 

before. contrary to, before. Supra, above. 

Penes, in the power of. Prope, nigh, by, beside. Trans, over, beyond. 

Per, through, by, during. Propter, for, on account Ultra, beyond. 
Pone, behind. of, near. 

Eleven prepositions have an ablative after them : — 

A, "^ Cum, with. Pras, before, for, on ac- 

Ab, > from, by, after. De, of, concerning, countofincompar- 

Abs,^ from, after, for. ison of 

A'bsque, without, but E, }^from, of, out of, Tvo, for, before, consid- 

for. Ex, J ^y^for, since. ering, according to. 

Coram, before, in pres- Palam, before, with the Sine, zoithout. 

ence of knowledge of Tenus, as far as, up to. 

Five prepositions take after them sometimes an accusative, 
and sometimes an ablative : — 

In, in, into. Sub, under, near. Super, above. Subter, under, beneath. 

Clam, without the knowledge of. 

Remark 1. Prepositions are so called, because they are generally 
placed before the noun or pronoun whose relation they express. They 
sometimes, however, stand after it. 

Rem. 2. A is used only before consonants; ab before vowels, and 
sometimes before consonants ; abs before q and t. 

E is prefixed only to consonants, ex both to vowels and consonants. 

Rem. 3. Versus, towards, and usque, as far as, which by some are 
considered prepositions, seem to be more properly classed with adverbs. 
Palam also is commonly an adverb. Setus, in the sense of by, along, 
wants good authority. 



PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

<§)196. Prepositions are compounded with various parts of 
speech. In composition, they may be considered either in 
reference to their form, or their force. 

I. Prepositions in composition sometimes retain their final 
consonants, and sometimes change them, to adapt them to the 
sounds of the initial consonants of the words with which they 
are compounded. In some words, both forms are in use ; in 
others, the final consonant or consonants are omitted. 

1. A, in composition, is used only before m and v ; as, amoveo, avello. 
M is used before vowels, and before d,f, h,j, I, n, r, and s; as, abjuro, 
abrogo, &c. Ms occurs only before c, q, and t; as, abscondo, absque, 
abstineo. In asporto, b is dropped ; in aufero and aufugio, it is~ changed 
into u. 

2. Ad often changes d into c, f, g, I, n, p, r, s, t, before those letters 
respectively ; as, accedo, affero, aggredior, allego, annitor, appdnC, arrlgo, 
assequor, attollo. D is usually omitted before s followed by a consonant, 



m 

156 FREFOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION* 

and before gn ; as, aspergo, aspicio, agnosco^ agndtus. Before q, d is 
changed into c ; as, acquiro, 

3. Circiim usually omits m before a vowel ; as, circueOj circuUus. It 
sometimes changes m into n before d ; as, circundo. 

4. Cum (in composition, com) retains m before ^, m, p ; as, comhiho, 
committo, compono : before I, n, r, its m is changed into those letters 
respectively ; as, colligo, connitor, corripio : before other consonants, it 
becomes n; as, conditco, conjungOj &c. Before a vowel, gn or A, m is 
commonly omitted; as, co&Oj coopto, cogo {com ago), cognosco^ cohabito; 
but it is sometimes retained ; as, comedo^ comes, comltor. In comhuro, b 
is inserted. 

5. Ex is prefixed to vowels, and to c, h, p, q, 5, t ; as, exeo, exigo, ex- 
currOf exhibeo, expedio, &c. Before /, x is changed into /; as, effero : 
before 5, it is often omitted ; as, exequor. E is prefixed to the other con- 
sonants; as, elUho, edico, &c. These^ with the exception of n and r, are 
also very rarely preceded by ex ; as, exmoveo. P is sometimes preceded 
by e ; a&, epoto, 

6. In, before h, m, p, changes n into m ; as, imbuo, immitto, impono ; 
before I and r, it changes n into those letters respectively ; as, illigo, 
irretio : before gn, n is omitted ; as, ignarvs. In some compounds, in 
retains <Z before a vowel, from an ancient form indu; as, inddgo, indigeo, 
indolesco. 

7. Ob changes b into c, /, g, p, before those letters respectively ; as^ 
occurroj officio, ogganio, oppeto. In omitto, b is dropped. 

8. Per changes r into I in pellicio and pelluceo. 

9. Pro sometimes takes d before a vowel; asyprodeo, prodesse. 

10. Sub sometimes changes b into c, /, g^ m, p, r, before those letters 
respectively > as, succedo, suffero, suggero, summoveo, supplico, surripio. 
Before c, p, and t, b is sometimes changed into s ; as, suscipio, suspendo, 
sustollo : it is omitted before s, followed by a consonant ; as, suspicio. 

11. Trans omits 5 before s ; as, transcendo : before other consonants, it 
often omits ns ; as, trajicio, tramitto, trano, &c. 

The following words are called inseparable prepositions, 
because they are found only in composition : — 

Amb, around, about. Red or re, again, back. Ve, not, 

Dis or di, asunder. Se, apart, aside. 

12. Amb before a vowel is unchanged ; as, ambarvdlis, ambio, ambustus : 
before consonants, b is omitted, and m, except before p, is changed into w; 
as, anfr actus, anquxro, amputo. 

13. Bis is prefixed to words beginning with c,p, q, s, t; as, discutio, 
dispono, disqulro, dissero, distendo : before /, s is changed into /; as, 
differ o : in dirimo, s becomes r. Di is prefixed to the other consonants, 
and to s when followed by a consonant; as, diduco, dimitto, distinguo, 
dispicio. But both dis and di are used before j' and r ; as, disjungo, diju- 
dico, disrumpo or dirumpo. 

14. Red is used before a vowel or h ; re before a consonant; a,s,reddmo, 
redeo, redkibeo, redigo, redoleo, redundo ; — rejicio, repono, revertor. But 
red is used before do ; as, reddo. 

15. Se and ve are prefixed without change ; as, secedo, securus ; vegran 
dis, vecors. 



COIN JUNCTIONS. 157 

4> 197. II. Prepositions in composition usually add their 
own signification to that of the word with which they are 
united ; but sometimes they give to the compound a meaning 
different from that of its simples, as in the following exam- 
ples :— 

1. Jl, with a nouriy sometimes Aeno\GS privation ; as, amens, mad. 

2. Ad is sometimes intensive ; as, addmoy to love greatly ; adbibo, to 
drink much. 

3. De often signifies downward; as, descendo, to descend; decido, to 
fall down. It is sometimes intensive ; as, dedmo, to love greatly ; de- 
inlror, &c. Sometimes it denotes privation ; as, despero^ to despair ; 
demens, mad ; decolor, discolored. 

4. Dis is sometimes intensive ; as, discupio, to desire greatly ; and 
sometimes negative ; as, dissimills, unlike. 

5. E and ex are sometimes intensive ; as, exoro, to beg earnestly ; ex- 
audio, to hear perfectly. Sometimes they denote privation ; as, exsanguis, 
bloodless ; exspes, hopeless. 

6. In, with adjectives, generally denotes negation ; as, inftdus, unfaithful ; 
indignus, unworthy. In some compounds, it has contrary significations, 
according as they are participles or adjectives ', as, invocdtus, called upon 
or not called upon ; immittatus, changed or unchanged, &c. 

7. Ob sometimes denotes around; us, obeo, to go around; sometimes 
against ; as, oppono, to oppose ; obsto, to withstand. 

8. Per, with adjectives, is commonly intensive ; as,j!?ercarM5, very dear ; 
perfactlis, very easy. With quam, it is strongly intensive ; as, perquam 
breviter, with exceeding brevity. In p erf idus, perfidious, j:?er is negative. 

9. Pr(B, with adjectives, is intensive ; as, prcecldrus, very clear ; pr<B- 
vaUdus, very strong. 

10. Pro sometimes denotes /or^A ; as, produco, to bring forth; prolo- 
quor, to speak out. 

11. Red is sometimes intensive ; as, redundo, to overflow : sometimes it 
is negative ; as, retego, to uncover ; recludo, to unlock. 

12. Se, with adjectives, denotes privation ; as, securus, without care. 

13. Sw^ often diminishes the meaning ; as,5wfenrfeo, to smile; suhdulcls, 
sweetish ; subtristis, somewhat sad. It sometimes denotes motion up- 
wards ; as, subrigo, to raise up. 

14. Ve, with adjectives, denotes privation ; as, vesdnus, unsound ; 
vecors, foolish. 

Remark. Prepositions in composition seem often to add nothing to the 
signification of the words with which they are compounded. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

<§) 198. A conjunction is a particle which connects 
words or propositions. 
14 



158 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



The most usual conjunctions are, 



Ag, and, as, than. 
An, iohethe2\ 
Anne, whether. 
Annon, ivhether or not. 
At, ast, but. 
Atque, and, as, than. 
Atqui, but. 
Attamen, yet. 
Aut, either, or. 
Autem, but, 
Ceterum, but, hoicexer. 
CQm, quum, since. 
Cum... turn, both... and. 
Dum, provided, ichile, 
Dummodo, so that. 
Enim./or. 
Equidem, indeed. 
Ergo, therefore. 
Et, and. 

Et...et, both. ..and. 
Etiam. also. 
Etiamsi, although. 
Etsi. though. 
Idcirco, therefore. 



Ideo, therefore. 
Igitur, therefore. 
Itaque, therefore. 
Licet, though. 
Modo, provided. 
Nam, namque,/or. 
Ne, lest. 
-Ne, whether. 
Nee, neither, nor. 
'Nec.neque, neither... nor. 
Necne, or not. 
Neque, neither, nor. 
Neu, neither, nor, and not. 
Neu...neve, neither... nor. 



Ni, ") 

Nisi, 5 



unless. 



Num, ichether. 
Quamvis, although. 
Quando, quandoqui- 
dem, whereas, since. 
Quanquam, although. 
-Que... -que, both... and. 
Quia, because. 
Quin, but that. 



Quippe, because. 

Quo, in order that. 

Quod, because. 

Quoniam, since. 

Quoque, also. 

Sed, but. 

Seu or sive, or. 

Seu...sivej whether.., or o 

Si, if 

Sin, but if. 

Siquidem, if indeed^ 

since. 
Tamen, however. 
Tametsi, although, 
Tum...tum, both... and. 
Ut, that. 

Uti, that, to the end that. 
Utrum, whether, 
-Ve, either, or. 
Vel, either, or. 
Vero, truly. 
Verum, but. 
Veruntamen, notwiih- 

standing. 



Conjunctions, according to their different significations, may 
be divided into the following classes : — 

1. Copulatives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
jointly ; as, ac, atque, et, etiam, que, quoque, and the negative nee or 
neque. 

2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
separately ; as, aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, and the negative neve or neu. 

3. CoNCEssivES, or such as express a concession; as, etsi, etiamsi, 
tametsi, licet, quanquam, quamvis. 

4. Adversatives, or such as express opposition ; as, at, atqui, autem, 
ceterum, sed, tamen, attamen, veruntamen, vero, veriim. 

5. Causals, or such as express a cause or reason; as, eMm, etenim, 
nam, namque, quando, quandoquidem, quia, quippe, quod, quoniam, quum 
or ciim, siquidem. 

6. Illatives, or such as express an inference ; as, ergo, idcirco, ideo, 
igitur, itaque, proinde, quapropter, quart, quamobrem, quccirca. 

7. Finals, or such as denote a purpose, object, or result ; as, ne, quin, 
quo, quominus, ut, uti. 

8 Conditionals, or such as express a condition; as, si, sin, nisi or ni, 
dummodo, or separately either dum or modd. 

9. SuspENSivEs, or such as express doubt; a,s, an, anne, annon, -ne, 
necne, num, utrum. 

Remark 1. Ac rarely stands before vowels or h; atque chiefly before 
vowels, but also before consonants. 



INTERJECTIONS. 159 

Rem. 2. Th^ conjunctions -ne, -que, -ve, are not used alone, but are 
always annexed to some other word. They are called enclitics. 

Rem. 3. Some words here classed with conjunctions are also used as 
adverbs, and many classed as adverbs are likewise conjunctions; that is, 
they at the same time qualify verbs, &c., and connect propositions ; as, 
Ceteris in rebus, ciim venit calamltas, tum detrimentum accipitur ; In other 
concerns, token misfortune comes, then damage is received. 

Rem. 4. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded with 
other parts of speech, and with each other ; as, atque, idcirco, ideo^ 
namque. 

In some, compounded of an adverb and a conjunction, each of the sim- 
ples retains its meaning, and properly belongs to its own class ; as, etiam 
(etjam), and now ', itdque, and so ; neque or nee, and not. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

<§) 199. An interjection is a particle used in exclama- 
tion, and expressing some emotion of the mind. 
The most usual interjections are, 

Ah ! ah ! alas ! Euge ! well done ! lo ! huzza ! 

Atat ! ha 1 indeed ! Evax ! ^ , . O I oh ! 

Au ! hush ! ichist / Evoe ! 5 "^^^^ " Oh ! oh ! alas / 

Ecce ! lo ! behold ! Ha ! ha ! he ! ha ! ha ! Ohe ! ho /. hold ! 

Ehem ! strange ! Hei ! wo ! alas ! Oi ! hoy ! alas ! 

Eheu ! alas ! Hem ! ho ! hold ! how ! Papae ! O strange ! 

Eho ! ehodum ! soho ! lo ! bravo ! Proh ! oh ! alas ! 

Eja ! on I Heu ! wo ! alas ! St ! hush ! 

En ! lo ! behold / Heus ! ho there ! mark ! Vie ! wo! 

Eu ! bravo ! Hui ! aioay ! ho ! Vah ! ha ! alas! bravo! 

Remark 1. An interjection sometimes denotes several diiferent emo- 
tions. Thus, vah is used to express wonder, grief, joy, and anger. 

Rem. 2. Other parts of speech may sometimes be regarded as inter- 
jections ; 3.s,pax! be still I Soindignum,infandum,miser2ini,miserabile, 
nefas, when used as expressions of grief or horror. 



160 



SYNTAX. 



SYNTAX. 



<§> 200, Syntax treats of the construction of proposi- 
tions, their connection and dependence. 

A proposition consists of a subject and ^predicate. 

The subject of a proposition is that of which something 
is affirmed. 

The predicate expresses that which is affirmed of the 
subject. 

Thus, Equus currit, The horse runs. Here equus is the 
subject, and currit is the predicate. 

Note. The word affirm, as used by grammarians, must be understood 
to include all the various significations of the verb, as expressed in the 
different moods. 

SUBJECT. 

<§> 201. I. The subject is either grammatical or logical. 
The grammatical subject is either a noun, or some word 
standing for a noun. The logical subject consists of the gram- 
matical subject, with its various modijications. 

Thus, Conscientia bene actas vits est jucundissima, The consciousness of 
a well-spent life is very pleasant. Here conscientia is the grammatical, 
and conscientia bent actce vitce the logical, subject. 

Note. If the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same as the 
logical subject. 

II. The subject is also either simple or compound. 

A simple subject is a single noun or word standing for a noun, 
either alone or variously modified ; as. 

Vita brevis est, Life is short. Longissima hominis vita hrevis est, The 
longest life of man is short. Fugaces lahuntur anni. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, 
to which one predicate belongs ; as, 

Luna et steW^fulgebant, The moon and stars were shining. Grammatice 
ac musice junctmfuerunt, Gramraar and music were united. 

Remark. Words are said to modify or Ihnit others, when 
they serve to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise 
qualify their meaning. 



SYNTAX. SUBJECT. 161 



Modified Subject. 

III. A grammatical subject may be modified or limited in 
different ways : — 

1. By a noun in the same case, annexed to it for the sake of 
explanation or description ; as, 

JS'os consules dcsuimis, We consuls are remiss. Muclus augur multa 
naiTcivlt, Mucins the augur related many tilings. 

2. By the oblique case of a noun or pronoun to which the 
subject has some relation : as, 

.^7/:.'^^* multitudmis commovetur, The love of the multitude is excited. 
De victoria Cajsaris fajiia perfertur^ A report of the victory of CcBsar 

is brought. 

3. By an adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle ; as., 

Fugitinvida.{Btas. Envious time flies. Ducit agmina Penthesilea farens^ 
Penthesilea raging leads on her troops. 

4. By the relativ.e qui and the words connected with it ; as, 

Leve Jit quod bene fertur onus. The burden which is well home becomes 
light. LittrcB, quas scripsisti, acceptce sunt. 

Remark 1. A noun or pronoun, in ariT/ case, may be modi- 
fied in either of the ways above mentioned. 

Rem. 2. An adjective modifying a noun may itself be 
modified : — 

(1.) By an adverb; as, 

Erat expectatio valde magna, There was very great expectation. 

(2.) By a noun in an oblique case; as. 

Major pietate, Superior in piety. Contentionis cupXdus, Fond of conten- 
ti/jn, 

(3.) By a relative or other dependent clause ; as, 
Videtur, qui imperet, dignus ; He seems worthy to command. 
(4.) By an infinitive mood, a gerund, or a supine; as, 
Insuetus vera audire, Unused to hear the truth. Promptus ad agendum, 
Ready to act. Mirahile dictu, Wonderful to be spoken. 

Rem. 3. A participle may be modified like a verb. See 
§ 202, III. 

Rem. 4. An adverb may be modified : — 

(1.) By another adverb; as, 

MsLgis apert^, More openly. Valde vehementer, Feri/ vehemently. 

(2.) By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, in an oblique case; as, 

Congruenter naturaB, Agreeably to nature. Optimd omnium. Best of all. 

Rem. 5. A preposition may be modified by an adverb, or by 
a noun in an oblique case ; as, 

Longe ultra, Far beyond. Multo ante noctem, Long before night 
Sexennio post Veios captos. 
14* 



162 SYNTAX. PREDICATE. 

Rem. 6. A modified grammatical subject, considered as one 

complex idea, may itself be modified ; as, 

Omnia tua consilia, All thy counsels. Here omnia modifies, not consUia^ 
but the complex idea tua consilia. So Omnia tua prava consilia. 

ly. 1. An infinitive, either alone or with the words connected 
with it, and also an entire clause, may be the logical subject of 
a proposition ; as, 

Mentiri est turpe, To lie is base. Virtus est vitium fugere, To shun vice 
is a virtue. E ccdo descendit, '•' Nosce te ipsum." JEquum est ut hoc facias. 

In such cases, the verb, or, if that be esse, the verb with its 
predicate noun or adjective, may be considered as the gram-' 
m at ical subject; as, 

Ora^torem irasci non dccet. jXon satis est, pulchra ess'e po^mdta. 

2. In consequence of the various modifications of the gram» 
matical subject of a proposition, the logical subject may be 
greatly extended, 

3. The noun or pronoun which is the subject of a proposition, 
is put in the nominative case, except that, when the verb of the 
predicate is an infinitive mood, it is put in the accusative. 

Note. In the following pages, when the term subject alone is used, 
the grammatical subject is intended. 



PREDICATE. 

<§) 202e I. The predicate, like the subject, is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate is either a verb alone, or the cop- 
ula sum with a noun or adjective. The logical predicate con- 
sists of the grammatical predicate with its various modifications. 

Thus, iSczpio fudit Annibalis copias, Scipio routed the forces of Hanni- 
hot. Heiefudit is the grammatical, a,iidfudit £nnibdlis copias the logical, 
predicate. Romulus RomansB conditor urbis erat. 

Note. If the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as 
the logical predicate. 

II. The predicate also, like the subject, is either simple or 
compound. 

A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite* 
verb; as, 

Brevis est voluptas, Pleasure is brief Mors venit, Death comes. 
Mors aequo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas. regumque turres. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predi- 
cates belonging to the same subject ; as, 

Probitas laudatur et alget, Honesty is praised and neglected. 

* A verb in any mood except the infinitive^ is called di finite verb. 



SYNTAX.— SENTENCES* 163 

Modified Predicate. 

III. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in 
different ways : — 

1. By a noun or adjective in the same case as the subject. 
This occurs after certain neuter verbs, and verbs passive of 
naming, calling, &:/C. (see § 210, Rem. 3) : as, 

Lice do regina, I walk queen. Aristidcs Justus est appelldtus. 

2. By a noun in an oblique case ; as> 

Dens regit mundum, God rules the world. Ago tibi gratias. Ex volun- 
idiie fecit. Spe vivimus. Venit ad urbem. 

3. By adverbs ; as, 

Saepe venit^ He often came. Litercz facile discuntur^ 

4. By an infinitive mood : as, 

Cupit discSre, He desires to learn. Probari volunt^ 

Rem. 1, An infinitive may be modified like the verb of a 
predicate. 

Rem 2, All other words used to modify verbs, may them- 
selves also be modified in the ways mentioned under the article 
Modified Subject, § 201, XXL 

SENTENCES, 

<§> 203. 1. A sentence may consist either of one proposi- 
tion, or of two or more propositions connected together. 

A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a simple 
sentence. 

A sentence consisting of two or more propositions, is called a 
compound sentence, and the propositions of which it is com- 
posed are called members, or clauses. 

2. The members of a compound sentence are either inde- 
pendent or dependent. 

An independent clause is one which makes complete sense 
by itself A dependent clause is one which makes complete 
sense only in connection with another clause. 

Thus, Phocion fuit perpetud pauper, cum dltissimus esse posset; Phocion 
was always poor, though he might have been very rich. Here the former 
clause is indepiendent, the latter dependent. 

3. That member of a compound sentence on which the other 
members depend, is called the leading clause; its subject, the 
leading subject ; and its verb, the leading verb. 



164 SYNTAX.— -APPOSITION. 

The leading verb is usually either in the indicative or imper- 
ative mood, but sometimes in the subjunctive. 

4. The members of a compound sentence may be connected 
by relative words, conjunctions, or adverbs. 

An infinitive with its subject may be united with another 
clause without a connective. 

5. Instead of a dependent clause connected by a conjunction, 
a noun and participle, or two nouns, sometimes stand as an 
abridged proposition ; as, 

-Bello confecto, discessit, i. e. quum bellum conf actum esset^ discessit ; 
The war being finished, or when the war was finished, he departed. Ml 
desperandum, Teucro duce. Hor. 

6. Agreement is the correspondence of one word with another 
in gender, number, case, or person. 

7. A word is said to govern another, when it requires it to be 
put in a certain case or mood. 

8. A word is said to depend on another, when its case, gen- 
der, number, mood, tense, or person, is determined by that word. 

9. A word is said to follow another, when it depends upon it 
in construction, whatever may be its position in the proposition. 



APPOSITION. 

^204. A noun, annexed to another noun or to a pro- 
noun, and denoting the same person or thing, is put in the 
same case ; as, 

Roma urbs, The city Rome. JS'os comTdes, We consuls. So .^pud 
Herodotum^ patrem historicB^ sunt innumerahVes fahulcE ; In Herodotus, the 
father of history. <fec. Cic. Lapides silices, flint stu-ies. Liv. Fons cui 
nomen Arethusa est. Cic. 

Remark 1. A noun, thus annexed to another, is said to be in apposi- 
tion with it. It is generally added for the sake of explanation or descrip- 
tion} sometimes it denotes character or purpose ; as. Ejus fugce. comitem 
Twe adjunxi, I added myself, as a companion of his flight. Both nouns 
must belong to the same part of the sentence, either subject or predicate. 
Incases of apposition, there seems to be an ellipsis of the ancient participle 
ens, being ; qui est, who is ; qui vocdtur, who is called : or the like. 

Rem. 2. If the annexed noun has a form of the same gender as the 
other noun, it takes that form ; as, Usus magister egregius. Flin. Philoso- 
phia magistra vitce. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The annexed noun sometimes differs from the other in gender; 
as, Dmo fulmma belli, Scipiadas ; The Scipios, two thunderbolts in war 
(Cic.) ; — sometimes in number ; as, Tulliola, deliciss nostrce, (Cic.) ;• — and 
sometimes in both ; as, Kate, Tnece vires. Virg. 

Rem. 4. The substantive pronoun is sometimes omitted before the 



SYNTAX. APPOSITION. 165 

word in apposition with it; as, Consul dixi, sc. ego ; (I) tlie consul said. 
Hoc tibi juventus Romdna mdiclmus helium, sc. nos ; (We) the Roman 
youth, &-C. Liv. 

Rem. o. a noun in apposition to two or more nouns, is usually put in 
the plural; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribuni plebis ; M. Antony, C. 
Cassius, tribunes of the people. Csbs. 

So when the nouns are connected by cum, the annexed noun taking the 
<?.ase of the former ; as, Dicmarchum, verb cum, Aristoxeno, dodos sane hom- 
lues, omittdmus. Cic. 

If the nouns are proper names of different genders, a masculine is an- 
nexed rather than a feminine, when both forms exist ; as, M Ptolemceum 
Cleopatramque reges legdti missi. Liv. 

Rem. 6. The annexed noun is sometimes in the genitive ; as, Urhs 
Patavii ; The city of Patavium. Virg. Jlmnis Eridani. Id. Arbor fici. 
Cic. jYomen Mercurii est mihi. Plant. 

Rem. 7. The name of a town in the genitive occurs with an ablative 
in apposition with it; as, Corinthl Achaice urbe ; At Corinth, a city of 
Achaia. Tac. See § § 221 and 254, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 8. A proper name, after nomen or cognomen, with a verb followed 
by a dative, is sometimes put in apposition with the dative, rather than 
with nomen or cognomen; as, JVemen Arcturo est mihi, I have the name 
Arcturus. Plant. Cui nunc cognomen lulo additur. Virg. Cui Egerio 
inditum nomen. Liv. 

Rem. 9. A clause may supply the place of one of the nouns ; as, Cogitet 
oratorem institui — rem arduam ; Let him reflect that an orator is training — 
a difficult thing. Quinct. 

Rem. 10. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, and its parts 
are expressed by the nouns in apposition with it ; as, Onerarice, pars max- 
ima ad JEgimurum, — alias adversus urbem ipsam delates sunt ; The ships of 
burden were carried, the greatest part, to ^Egimurus, — others opposite 
to the city itself. Liv. Pictores et poetce suum quisque opus a vulgo con- 
s/dcrdri cult. Cic. In the following example, quisque is in the nomina- 
tive, though the word with which it is in apposition is in the ablative ; — 
Midtis sibi quisque imperium petentibu^s. Sail. 

To this rule may be subjoined that which relates to the agreement of 
interrogative and responsive words. 

Rem, 11. The principal noun or pronoun in the answer to 
a question, must be in the same case with the corresponding in- 
terrogative word ; as, 

Quis herus est tibi ? Amphitruo, sc. est. Who is your master ? Amphit- 
ruo (is.) Plaut. Quid quceris? Librum, sc. qucero. What ctre you 
looking for .^ A book. (^\io\khordvenisti? Sexta. At what hour did you 
come ? At the sixth. 

Note 1. Instead of the genitive of a substantive pronoun, the corre- 
sponding possessive pronoun is often used, agreeing with its noun ; as, 
Cujus est liber 1 Mens, (not Mei^ (See § 211, Rem. 3.) So cujum for gen. 
cujus ; Cnjnmpecus? anMeliboBi? JVon ; verum JEgonis. Virg. 

Note 2. Sometimes the rules of syntax require the responsive to be 
in a different case from that of the interrogative ; as, Quanti emisti ? 
Viginti minis. Damnatusne es furti ? Imd alio crimine. See §§252 
and 217. 



166 SYNTAX. — -ADJECTIVES. 



ADJECTIVES. 

§ 205. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
agree with their nouns, in gender, number, and case ; as, 

Bonus vir, A good man. Bonos vivos, Grood men. 

Benigna mater, A kind mother. Vance leges^ Useless laws. 

Triste helium, A sad war. Minacia verba, Threatening words. 

Spe amissd, Hope being lost. Hcec res, This thing. 

Note 1 . An adjective, participle, or pronoun, may either m.odify a noun. 
or, with the verb sum, constitute a predicate. The rule for their agree- 
ment, in botli cases, is, in general, the same. 

Note 2. In the following remarks, the word adjective is to be consid- 
ered as including participles and adjective pronouns, unless the contrary 
is intimated. 

Remark 1. An adjective also agrees with a substantive pronoun, 
taking its gender from that of the noun for which the pronoun stands ; 
as, Ipse capellas eeger ago, sc. ego, Melibaus ; (I) myself, sick, am driving 
my goats. Virg. Ut se totum ei traderet. Nep. me miserum (spoken 
by a man), miser am me (by a woman). So salvi sumus, salvcB sumv^, sc. 
nos, masculine or feminine. 

In general propositions which include both sexes, the pronouns are 
considered masculine ; as, Nosfruges consumere nati. Hor. 

Rem. 2. An adjective, belonging to two or more nouns, is 
put in the plural ; as. 

Lupus et agnus ^iii compulsi, A wolf and a lamb, constrained by thirst. 
Phaed. 

When the nouns are of different genders, 

(1.) If they denote living things, the adjective is masculine 
rather than feminine ; as, 

Pater mi/ii et mater mortui sunt. My father and mother are dead. Ter. 

(2.) If they denote things without life, the adjective is gene- 
rally neuter ; as, 

His genus, cetas, eloquentia prope aequaiia fuere ; Their family, age, and 
eloquence, were nearly equal. Sail. Regna, im.peria, nohilitdtes, honcrcs, 
diviticBin casu sita sunt. Cic. Huic hello,, rapince, discordia civllis, grata 
fuere. Sail. Amma atque animus, quamvis Integra recens in corpus eunt. 
Lucr. 

Note. When nouns denoting things without life are of the same gen- 
der (either masculine or feminine), but of different numbers, the adjective 
is sometimes neuter 3 as, Crceso et vita et patrimonii partes, et urhs Barce 
concessa sunt. Just. 

(3.) If one of the nouns denotes an animate, and another an 
inanimate thing, the adjective is sometimes neuter, and some- 
times it takes the gender of that which has life; as, 

Naves et captivos quae ad Ckium capta erant. The ships and captives 
which were taken at Chios. Liv. JVumidce atque signa militaria obscurati 
sunt. Sail. 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 167 

Exc. to Rem. 2. The adjective often agrees with the nearest 
noun, and is understood with the rest ; as, 

Sociis et rege recepto, Our companions and king being recovered. Virg. 
Cognltum est J salutcm, liber os , famam, fortunas esse carissimas. Cic. 

Note. A noun in the singular, followed by an ablative with cwm, hats 
sometimes a plural adjective ; as, Filiam cumjilio accltos. Liv. Ilia cum 
Lauso de JVuinitore sati. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. An adjective qualifying a collective noun, is often 
put in the plural, taking the gender of the individuals which the 
noun denotes ; as, 

Fars certdre parati, A part prepared to contend. Virg. Pars per 
agros dilapsi, .... suam quisque spem exsequentes. Liv. Supplex turha 
erant sine vindice tuti. Ovid. This construction always occurs when the 
collective noun is the subject of a plural verb. 

Sometimes, though rarely, an adjective in the singular takes the gender 
of the individuals; as, P«r5 arduus aids pulverulentus equisfurit. Virg 

Some other nouns have an adjective of a different gender from their 
own, referring to the words which they include ; as, Latlum Capudque 
agro mulctati ; Latium and Capua were deprived of their land. Liv. 
Capita conjurationis virgis caesi. Id. 

Rem. 4, Two adjectives in the singular are sometimes joined to a plu- 
ral noun ; as, Maria Tyrrhenum atque Adriaticum, The Tuscan and 
Adriatic seas. Liv. In comic writers, an adjective or participle in the 
singular is sometimes used with a plural pronoun ; as, JVohis prcesente. 
Plant. Ahsente nobis. Ter. 

Rem. 5. A participle which should regularly agree with the subject of 
a proposition, when placed after the noun of the predicate, sometimes 
takes the gender and number of the latter; as, Non omnis error stultitia 
c^idicenda; Not every error is to be called folly. Cic. Gens universa 
Veneti appellati. Liv. 

Rem. 6. When the subject of an infinitive is omitted after a dative of 
the same signification, an adjective in the predicate, belonging to that sub- 
ject, is sometimes put in the dative ; as, Mihi negligenti esse non licuit, 
i. e. me negligentem esse mihi non licuit. Cic. Da mihi justo sancto^'we 
videri. Hor. A noun is sometimes expressed with the adjective ; as, 
Vobis necesse est fortibus esse viris. Liv. The adjective often agrees with 
the omitted subject ; as, Expedit bonas esse vobis, sc. vos. Ter. Si civi 
Romano licet esse Gaditanum. Cic. 

Rem. 7. (1.) An adjective is often used alone, especially in 
the plural, the noun, with which it agrees, being understood ; as, 

Boni sunt rarij sc. homines ; Good (men) are rare. Ccesar suos misit, 
sc. milites ; Caesar sent his (soldiers). Dextra. sc. manus ; The right 
(hand). Pinguisque ferlnae, sc. carnis. ImmortdleSy sc. Dii. Amantium, 
sc, homtnum. Ilium indignanti similem, similemque minanti aspiceres, sc. 
homini. Virg. Tibi primas defcro, sc. partes. Cic. Respice pra3teritum, 
sc. tempus, which is often omitted. Cognovi ex meorum omnium Uteris^ 
sc. amicorum. Cic. So patrial adjectives ; as, Missi ad Parthum Arme- 
niumque legdti, sc. regem. 

Note 1. The noun to be supplied with masculine adjectives is commonly 
homines, but when they are possessives, it is oftener amici, milites, cives. 

Note 2. The noun to be supplied is often contained in a preceding 
clause. 



163 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES. 



(2.) Neuter adjectives are very often used alone, referring 
not to nouns omitted, but to objects conceived or exhibited as 
indefinite ; as, 

Triste lupus stahulis ; The v/olf, a grievous (thing) to the folds. Virg. 
Labor omnia vincit ; Labor overcomes all (obstacles). Id. Turpe ducet 
cedere pari. Quinct. Vacdre culpa est suave. Quas cum ita sint. Cic. 
Pcdihus per mutua nexis. Virg. 

Note. In most instances of this kind, the word thing, in English, may- 
be supplied. Many grammarians suppose that negotium is understood ; 
but that word seems not to admit such a sense. 

(3.) Adjectives used without nouns often have adjectives agreeing with 
them; as, Mia omnia. All other (things). Plin. Familidris mens. Cic. 
Iniquus noster. Id. Justa funehria. Liv. Jovis omnia plena. Virg. 
See § 201, III. Rem. 6. 

Rem. 8. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and words consid- 
ered merely as such, may be used substantively, and take a neuter adjec- 
tive; as, Supremum vale dixit, He pronounced a last farewell. Ovid. 
Velle suum cuique est. Pers. Cras istud quando venit ? Mart. Excepto 
quod non simul esses, cetera Icetus. Hor. 

Rem. 9. Adjectives and adjective pronouns, instead of agreeing with 
their nouns, are sometimes put in the neuter gender, with a partitive 
signification, and their nouns in the genitive ; as, Multum temporis, for 
multum tempus ; much time. Id rei, for ea res; that thing. So plus 
eloquentim, the other form not being admissible with plus. (See § 110.) 
Neuter adjectives are used in like manner in the plural ; as, Vana rerum, 
for vance res. Hor. Fleraiqae humandrum rerum. Sail. But in some such 
examples, the adjective seems to be used as noticed in Rem. 7, (2.) ; as, 
Acuta belli. Hor. Telluris operta. Virg. 

The adjectives thus used in the singular, for the most part, signify 
quantity. See § 212, Rem. 3, Note 1. 

Rem. 10. A neuter adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the 
nominative or accusative, both singular and plural ; as, Magnum stridens. 
Virg. Arma horrendum sonuere. Id. Multa deos venerdii sunt. Cic. 
See § 192, II. 4, (b.) 

Rem. 11. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective; as, Incola turba 
vocant. Ovid. Nemo 7niles Romdnus. Liv. 

An adverb is also sometimes used as an adjective ; as, Heri semper 
lemtasj for sempiterna. Ter. 

Rem. 12. An adjective or adjective pronoun, used partitively, stands 
alone, and commonly takes the gender of the genitive plural, which 
depends upon it; but when it is preceded by a noun of a different 
gender, to which it refers, it usually takes that gender, but sometimes 
that of the genitive ; as, Elephanto belludrum nulla est prudentior, No 
beast is wiser than the elephant. Cic. Indus , qui est omnium jiuminum 
maximus. Cic. Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphlnus. Plin. 
See § 212, Rem. 2. 

When a collective noun follows in the genitive singular, the adjective 
takes the gender of the individuals which compose it; as, FzV fortissimus 
nostrce civitdtis, The hra^Yestma^n of OUT sta,te. Cic. Ma,ximus stirpis. Liv. 

Rem. 13. When a possessive pronoun is used instead of the genitive of 
its primitive (see § 211, Rem. 3.), an adjective agreeing with that genitive is 
sometimes joined with such possessive ; as, Solius meum peccdtum corrigi 



SYNTAX.— ADJECTIVES ; RELATIVES. 169 

nan potest, The fault of me alone cannot be corrected. Cic. Noster 
duorum eventus. Liv. Mea scripta timentis. Hor. Tuum ipsius studi- 
um. Cic. Id maxlme quemque decet, quod est cujusque sxxxxm maximt . Id. 

Sometimes a noun in the genitive is expressed, in apposition with the 
substantive pronoun for which the possessive stands ; as, Pectus tuum, 
hominis simplicis. Cic. 

Rem. 14. An adjective, properly belonging to the genitive, is some- 
times made to agree with the noun on which the genitive depends, 
and vice versd ; as, ^dificationis tuse consilium for tuum, Your design of 
building. Cic. Accv^antes violati hospitii foedus, for violdtum. Liv. Jld 
majora initia rerum ducentihus fatis, for majorum. Id. lis nominihus 
civitdtum, quibus ex civitatihus, &c. for edrum civitdtum. Caes. 

Rem. 15. An adjective agreeing with a noun is sometimes used, in- 
stead of an adverb qualifying a verb, especially in poetry ; as, Ecce venit 
Teldmon properus ; Lo, Telamon comes in haste. Ovid. Laeti pacem 
agitabdmuSf for l(Bte. Sail, ^neas se matutinus agebat^ for mane. Virg. 

So ntdltts is used for omnlno non ; as, Memini tametsi nuUus moneas, 
Though you do not suggest it. Ter. Prior, primus, propior, proximus, 
solus, untis, ultimus, and some others, are used instead of their neuters, 
adverbially; sls, Triovi Remoaugurium venissefertur, Liv. This is some- 
times done, for want of an adverb of appropriate meaning ; as, Pronus 
cecldit, Ovid. Frequentes convenerant. Sail. 

In such expressions, tu, in the nominative, sometimes takes an adjec- 
tive in the vocative, and vice versd; as. Sic venias hodierne. Tibull. 
Salve, primus omnium parens patrice appellate. Plin. 

Rem. 16. When several adjectives, each independently of the other, 
qualify a noun, if they precede it, they are almost always connected by one 
or more conjunctions ; as, Multd et varid et copiosd oratione. Cic. If they 
follow it, the conjunction is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted ; 
as, Vir alius et excellens. Cic. Actio, varia, vehemens, plena veritdtis. Id. 

But when one of the adjectives qualifies the noun, and another the 
complex idea formed by the first with the noun, the conjunction is always 
omitted ; as, Periculosissimum ci'Clle bellum, A most dangerous civil 
war. Cic. Malam domesticam discipllnam. Id. So with three or more 
adjectives ; Externos multos claros viros nomindrem. Cic. See § 201 , 
III., Rem. 6. 

Rem. 17. The adjectives jpnmws, medius, ultimus, extremus, 
intimus, infimus, imus, summus^ supremus, rcUquus, and cetera, 
often signify Xhe first part, the middle part, &/C. of a thing ; as, 

Media nox, The middle of the night. Summa arbor, The highest part of 
a tree. Supremos montes. The tops of the mountains. But these adjec- 
tives frequently occur without this signification ; as, ^i extremo complexu, 
From the last embrace. Cic. InflmA) loco. Of the lowest rank. Id. 

Rem. 18. The participle of the compound tenses of neuter verbs, used 
in the passive voice, is neuter ; as, Ventum est. Cic. Itum est in viscera 
terr<B. Ovid. 

RELATIVES. 

^ 206. Rem. 19. Relatives agree v^^ith their antece- 
dents in gender and number, but their case depends on the 
construction of the clause to which they belong ; as, 

Puer qui legit. The boy who reads. Animal quod currit, The animal 
15 



170 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; RELATIVES. 

which runs. Liter cb quas dedi, The letter which I gave. JS'on sum qualis 
eram, I am not such as I was. So Deus cujus munere vivimus, cui nullus 
est similis, quern colimus, a qno facta sunt omnia, est ceternus. Jlddictus 
Hermippo, et ah hoc ductus est. Jiquilo, quantus/ran^zY ilices, Hor. 

Note. This rule includes all adjectives, participles, and adjective pro- 
nouns which relate to a noun in a preceding clause. Its more common 
application, however, is to the construction of the relative qui. 

The relative may be considered as placed between two cases 
of the same noun, either expressed or understood, with the for- 
mer of which it agrees in gender and number, and with the lat- 
ter in gender, number, and case. 

(1.) Sometimes both nouns are expressed; as, 

Erant omnino duo itinera, quibus itineribus domo exlre possent ; There 

were only two routes, by which routes they could leave home. Csbs. 

Crudelissimo bello, quale bellum nulla unquam harharia gessit. Cic. 

(2.) Usually the antecedent only is expressed ; as, 
Animum rege, qui, nisi paret, imperat ; Govern your passions, which 
rule unless they obey. Hor. Tantce multitudinis, quantam capit urhs nostra, 
concur sus est ad me f actus. Cic. Quot capitum vivunt, totidem studidrum 
millia. Hor. 

(3.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, generally 
when the relative clause precedes that of the antecedent ; as, 

Quibus de rebus ad me scripsisti, coram videhimus ; In regard to the 
things of which you wrote to me, we will consider when we meet. Cic. 
In qu.ein pj'imum egressi sunt locum, Troja vacatur. Liv. Quanta vi expe- 
tunt, tantd defendunt. Quales^'i^e visus eram vidisse viros, ex ordine tales 
aspicio. Ovid. 

To this head may be referred such examples as the following : — Qui mens 
amor in te est, i. e. pro meo amore qui in te est ; Such is my love for you. 
Cic. Qua; tua est virtus, expugndbis, i. e. pro tua xirtute, &c. 

(a.) The place of the antecedent is sometimes supplied by a demonstra- 
tive pronoun, especially when the cases are diiferent ; as, M quas res 
aptissimi erimus, in iis potissimum elahorahimus. Cic. 

(h.) Sometimes the latter noun only is expressed, even when the relative 
clause does not precede ; as, Quis non maldrum quas amor curas habet, 
hcec inter ohliviscitur 7 Hor. 

(4.) Sometimes neither noun is expressed ; this happens 
especially when the antecedent is designedly left indefinite, or 
when it is a substantive pronoun ; as, 

Qui bene latuit, bene vixit, sc. homo ; (He) who has well escaped notice, 
has lived well. Ovid. Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum col- 
legisse juvat, sc. homines ; There are whom it delights, &c. Hor. JS'on 
habeo quod te accnsem, sc. id propter quod. Cic. JVon solum sapiens 
videris qui hinc absis, sed eiiam bedtus, sc. tu. Cic. 

(5.) The relative is sometimes either entirely omitted ; as, Urbs antiqua 
fuit; Tyrii tenuere coloni, sc. quam or earn; There was an ancient city 
(which) Tyrian colonists possessed (Virg.) ; or, if once expressed, is after- 
wards omitted, even when, if supplied, its case would be different ; as, 
Bacchus cum peditibus, quos filius ejus adduxerat, neque in priore pugnd 
adfuerant, Romdnos invddunt, for et qui non in priore, &c. Sail. 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; RELATIVES. 171 

(6.) (a.) The relative sometimes takes the case of the antecedent, in- 
stead of its own proper case ; as, Ciim scribas ct aliquld agas eorum, quo- 
rum cotisuistl, for qu(B. Cic. Raptirn quibus quisque poterat eldtls, cxihant^ 
for Us, qucc quisque efferre poterat, eldtls. Liv. 

(b.) The antecedent Ukewise sometimes takes the case of the relative ; 
as, Urbem, quam statuo vestra est, for urbs. Virg. Naucratem, quern con- 
vetiire volui, in navi non erat. Plant. Sed istum, quern queer is, ego 
sum. Id. 

These constructions are said to occur by attraction. 

(7.) An adjective, which properly belongs to the antecedent, is some- 
times placed in the relative clause, and agrees with the relative ; as. Inter 
jocos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for jocos inconditos, quos, &c. ; Amidst the 
rude jests which they utter. Liv. Verbis, qued ma.gn3. volant. Vug. Ga- 
lore, quern multum luibet. Cic. 

This is the common position of the adjective, when it is a numeral, a 
comparative, or a superlative ; as, JYocte quam in terris ultimam egit. The 
last night which he spent upon earth. JEsculapius, qui prinms vulnus oh- 
ligavisse dicltur, Cic. Consiliis pare, quee nunc pulcherrinia JYautes dot 
senior. Virg. Some instances occur in which an adjective belonging to 
the relative clause, is placed in that of the antecedent ; as, Cu7n venissent 
ad vada Volaterrana, quae nominantur. Cic. 

(8.) When to the relative is joined a noun, explanatory of the 
antecedent, but of a different gender or number, the relative 
agrees with that noun ; as, 

Santones non long6 a. Tolosatiumfinibus absunt, quse ci vitas est in provin- 
cid, The Santones are not far distant from the borders of the Tolosates, 
which state is in the province. Caes. Ante comitia, quod tempus haud long^ 
aberat. Sail. 

(9.) If the relative refers to one of two nouns, denoting the 
same object, but of different genders, it agrees with either ; as, 

Flumen est Arar quod in Rhoddnurn influit. Caes. Ad flumen Oxum per- 
ventum est, qui turbidus semper est. Curt. 

(10.) When, in a relative clause containing the verb sum or a 
verb of naming, esteeming, 6lc., a noun occurs of a different 
gender from the antecedent, the relative agrees with either ; as, 

JVaturcB vultus quem dixere Chaos, The appearance of nature which they 
called chaos. Ovid. Genus hominum quod Helotes vocdtur . Nep. Animal, 
quem vocdmus hominem ; The animal whom we call man. Cic. Locus in 
carcere, quod Tullianum appelldtur. Sail. Pecunidrum conquisitio ; eos 
esse belli civllis nervos dictUans Mucidnus. Tac. 

(11.) The relative sometimes agrees with a noun, either equi- 
valent in sense to the antecedent, or only implied in the preced- 
ing clause ; as, 

Abundantia edrum rerum quas mortdles prima putant. An abundance of 
those things which mortals esteem most important. Sail. Quartum 
genus est sanh varium et mistum .... qui jampridem premuntur. Cic. Con- 
juravere pauci contra rempublicam, de qua (sc. conjuratidne), quam brevis- 
slme potero dicam. Sail. Daret ut catcnis fatdle monstrum, quae, &c., sc. 
Cleopatra. Hor. Non diffidentid futuri quae imperavisset. Sail. Si tem- 
pus est ullum quae multa sunt. Cic. 



172 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; DEMONSTRATIVES, &C. 

(12.) The antecedent is sometimes implied in a possessive pronoun j as, 
Omnes lauddre fortunas meas, qui natum tali ingenio prcBditum haberem ; 
sc. 7nei ; All were extolling my fortune, who had a son endowed with 
such a disposition. Ter. Nostrum consilium laudandum est, qui meos 
cives servis armdtls objici noluerim. Cic. 

(13.) Sometimes the antecedent is a proposition, and then the relative 
is commonly neuter ; as, Postremd, quod difficillimum inter mortdles, glorid 
invidiam vicisti ; Finally, you have overcome envy with glory, which, 
among men, is very difficult. Sail. Equidem exspectdbam jam tuas literas, 
Adqiie cuin multis. Cic. 

In such instances, id is sometimes placed before the relative pronoun, 
referring to the idea in the antecedent clause ', as, Sive, id quod constaty 
Platonis studiosus audiendi fuit. Cic. Diem consumi voUbant, id quod 
fecerunt. Id. 

Sometimes a relative referring to a clause, agrees with a noun following; 
as. Idem velle atque nolle, ea demum Jirma amicitia est. Sail. 

(14.) Quod, relating to a preceding statement, and serving the purpose 
of transition, is often placed at the beginning of a sentence after a period. 
It is thus used especially before si and nisi, and sometimes before utinam, 
ut, ne, ubi, cum, contra, and nunc ; as, Quod si mundum efficere potest con- 
cursus atomorum, cur portlcum, cur templum, cur domum, cur urbem non 
potest ? In regard to which, if the concourse of atoms can produce a world, 
why, &c. Cic. Quod ie per genium obsecro, vitce me redde priori. Hor. 
Quod utinam ilium, cujus impio facinore in has miserias projectus sum, 
eddem hcec simulantem videam. Sail. 

Quod, in such examples, seems to be an accusative, with propter or ad 
understood. 

(15.) If the relative refers to two or more nouns of different genders, 
its gender will be determined by Rem. 2 ; as, JVinu^ et Semirdmis, qui 
Babyldna condiderant ; Ninus and Semiramis, who had founded Babylon. 
Veil. Crebro fundli et tibicine, quae sibi sumpserat. Cic. Ex summa 
IcBtitid et lascivid, quae diuturna quies pepererat. Sail. 

(16.) The relative adjectives quot, quantus, qualis, are construed like the 
relative qui. They have generally, in the antecedent clause, the corre- 
sponding words, tot, tantu^, talis ; but these are often omitted. 

(17.) Qui, at the beginning of a sentence, is often translated like a de- 
monstrative ; as, Qu£e cum ita sint. Since these (things) are so. Cic. 



DEMONSTRATIVES, INDEFINITES, &c. 

•§> Z\J4» Rem. 20. The adjective pronouns often agree with a 
^oun expressed, instead of another noun understood ; as, JVcc solos 
tangit Atridas iste dolor. Nor does that grief (i.e. grief on that account) 
affect the sons of Atreus alone. Virg. 

Rem. 21. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used where a 
corresponding word in English is unnecessary ; as, Quem neque fides, neque 
jusjur an dum, ficque illnm. misericordia, repressit ; Whom neither fidelity, 
nor an oath, nor pity, has restrained. Ter. 

Rem. 22. The neuters of the demonstrative pronouns are sometimes 
used in apposition with a dependent clause ; as. Hoc tibi persuadeas velim, 
me nihil omisisse ; I wish you to be persuaded of this — that I have omitted 
nothing. 

Rem. 23. Hie refers to what is near, ille to what is remote. Hence, 
of two things mentioned before, hie commonly refers to the latter, ille to 



SYNTAX. — adjectives; demonstratives, &c. 173 

ithe former ; as, Ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; ilia maturam scnectU' 
tern, hie longam adolescentiam reddit : Sloth enervates the body, labor 
strengthens it; the former produces premature old age, the latter protract- 
ed youth. Cels. 

Yet this rule is not always observed ; as, Sic deus et mrgo est ; hie spe 
cderj ilia tlmore. Ovid. Sometimes hie. ..hie are used instead of hic...ille. 
So iUe...ille sometimes denote " the one. ..the other." 

When more than two persons or things are spoken of, ille refers to the 
most remote, iste to a nearer, and hie to the nearest object. Hence, in let- 
ters, hie and its derivatives are used of the writer ; iste and its derivatives 
of the person addressed ; ille, &c., of some other person or thing. See 
§]91,Rem. 2. 

Rem. 24. Ille is used to denote that which is of general notoriety ; as, 
Magno illi Alexandro similllmus, Very like Alexander the Great. Veil. 
Medea ilia. Cic. Ille is sometimes translated this ; as, Unum illud dicOj 
This only I say. Cic. 

Rem. 25. Iste often denotes contempt; as, Impcdiebantur ed lege, quam 
idem iste tider at.... the same wretch. Cic. Sometimes, on the contrary, it 
means so great ; as, Chm ista sis auctoritdte, Since you are of so great 
authority. Cic. 

Rem. 26. Is does not, like hie, ille, and z^ic, denote the place or order of 
the object to which it relates, but refers to something already mentioned 
or to be defined by the relative qui. Hie, is, or ille, may be used in this way 
before the relative, but only hie or is after it ; as, Qui docet, is discit, or hie 
discit, but not ille discit, unless some individual is referred to. 

Is has sometimes the sense of talis, such ; as, Neqiie enira tu is es, qui 
quid sis nescias : Nor are you such a person as to be ignorant what you 
are. Cic. 

Is with et or que is emphatic, equivalent to the English ^^ and that too;" 
as, Pricdtas causas, et eas tenues agimus ; We manage private causes, and 
those unimportant. Cic. Erant in, Torqudto plurimce literce. nee ese vulgd- 
res. Id. 

Rem. 27. Idem, as denoting a subject which stands in equal relations to 
two different predicates, often supplies the place of item or etiam, also, or of 
tamen, yet, if the things are apparently inconsistent; as, Musici, qui erant 
quondam iidem poetce ; Musicians, who formerly were poets also. Cic. 
Euphrates et Tigris magno aqudruin divortio iter percurrunt ; ildem (and 
yet) pauldtim in arctius co&unt. 

Idem is sometimes repeated in the sense of '• at once," denoting the 
union of qualities which might be thought incompatible ; as, Fuere quidam 
qui ildem ornate ildem versute dicerent, There have been some who could 
speak at once elegantly and artfully. Cic. 

'' The same as" is variously expressed in Latin, hj idem with qui, ac or 
atque, quasi or ut ; as, Verres idem est quifuit semper, Verres is the same 
as he has always been. Cic. Vita est eadem ac fait. Liv. Disputatidnem 
exponlmus iisdem/ere verbis ut actum, est. Cic. 

Rem. 28. Ipse, when used with the substantive pronouns, sometimes 
agrees with them; but, when they are reflexive, and in an oblique case, it 
commonly agrees with the subject of the proposition ; as, Agam per me ipse, 
I will do it myself. Cic. Medici ipsi se curdre non possunt. Sulpic. Se 
ipsos omnes natitrd diligunt. 

Ipse is sometimes used as reflexive without sui ; as, Omnes boni, quan- 
tum in ipsis/w'^, Ccesdrem occiderunt. Cic. 

Ipse, with nouns denoting time or number, expresses exactness ; as, 

15* 



174 SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; DEMONSTRATIVES, &C. 

Cum ipsis nonis Sextilis, Exactly on the fifth of August. Cic. Triginta 
dies erant ipsi, Thirty whole days had elapsed. Id. 

Rem. 29. The relative quicunque is sometimes used as equivalent to 
omnis o'.* quivis ; as, Qiia sandri poterunt quacunque ratione sandbo, What 
can be cured 1 will cure by every possible means. Cic. Yet possum is 
rather to be supplied; — "in whatever way I can." So quisqnis is occa- 
sionail}^ used, not as a relative, but as an indefinite pronoun. 

Rem. 30. Aliquis and quispiam are particular, corresponding to the 
English some one; as, Hereditas est pecunia, qu(B morte alicujus ad quem- 
piam perven't jure ; An inheritance is property which, at the death of some 
one, falls to some (other) one by law. Cic. Multi sine doctrind aliquid 
omiiium generum et artium conscquuntur. Id. 

Rem. 3i. Qw?>^i/am, any one, and ulliis , ?Lnj , axe universal: they are 
used in propositions which involve a universal negative, or which express 
an interrogation with a negative force, or a condition (usually with si or 
quasi) ; also, after comparatives, after the adverb vix^ and the preposition 
sine; as, Xeque ex castris Catilince quisquam omnium, discesserat, Nor had 
any one departed from the camp of Catiline. Sail. JYec ullo casu potest 
contingere, ut ulla intermissio fiat officii. Cic. An quisquam potest sine 
ferturbatione mentis irasci ? Id. Tetrior hie tyr annus Syracu^dnis fuit, 
quam quisquam superiorum. Id. Vix quidquam spei est. Sen. 

UUus is properly an adjective, but it may be used, like any other adjec- 
tive, with a noun understood. Quisquam is commonly used without a noun^ 
except it is a word denoting a person ; as, Cuiquam civi. To any citizen. 
Cuju^quam oratoris eioquentiam. JYemo is often used for nullus ; as, Ticmo 
pictor, nemo adolescens, and even homo nemo. Cic. 

Rem. 32. Alius, like ullus, though properly an adjective, is sometimes 
used like a pronoun. It is often repeated, or joined with an adverb deriv- 
ed from it, in the same proposition, which may be translated by two sepa- 
rate propositions, commencing respectively with ^^ one,. ..another ;" as, 
Aliud aliis videtur optimum, One thing seems best to one, another to ano- 
ther. Cic. Aliis aliunde periculum est, Danger threatens one from one 
source, another from another ; or, Danger threatens different persons from 
different sources. Ter. Dionysium aliter cum ahis de nobis locutum avdie- 
bam. Cic. 

Alter is commonly used when ^t^7o persons are spoken of; as, Uterque 
numerus alter alterd de causa habetur. Cic. 

Alius, repeated in different propositions, is also translated " one. ...an- 
other ;" as, Aliud agitur, aliud simuldtur, One thing is done, another pre- 
tended. Cic. 

Rem. 33. Quidam differs from aliquis by implying that a person or 
thing, though indefinitely described, is definitely known ; as, Quidam de 
eollegis nostrls, A certain one of our colleagues. Cic. Scis me quodam 
tempore Metapontum venisse teciim. Id. 

Quidam is sometimes used for some, as opposed to the whole, or to 
others ; as, Excesserunt urbe quidam, alii mortem sibi conscivtrunt ; Some 
departed from the city, others destroyed themselves. Liv. Hence it is 
used as a limitation ; as, Milvo est quoddam bellum naturdle cum corvo, .... 
a kind of warfare. Cic. 

Rem. 34. Quivis and quillbet, any one you please, are universal; as, 
Omnia sunt, cjusmodi quivis ut perspicere possit. All are of such a nature 
that any one can perceive. Cic. Hie apud majores noslros adhibebdtur 
perltus, nunc quilibet. Id. A negative joined with them denies only th» 
universality wliich they imply ; as, J\*on cuivis homlni contingit adire Co 



SYNTAX. ADJECTIVES ; REFLEXIVES. 175 

rinthum, i. e. not to every man without distinction. Hor. Cuiquam would 
iiave made the negation universal. 

R?:m. 35. Quisgue signifies each., every one, and generaliy stands with- 
out a noun ; as, Quod cuique obtlgit, id quisque teneat ; Let each one keep 
what has fallen to each. Cic. 

It is often used with two superlatives ; as, Optimum quidque rarisslmum 
est, The best things are the rarest. Cic. Ut quisque optime dicit^ ita 
maxime dicendl dlfficultdtem timet. Id. 

With primus, it denotes the first passible ; as, Primo quoque tempore^ 
As soon as possible. Cic. 

Rem. 36. The possessives meus, tuus, noster, tester, and suns, are joined 
to nouns, to indicate an action or possession of the persons denoted by 
their primitives ; as. Tutus amor meus est tibi, My love is secure to you. 
Ovid. Tuam vicem dolere soleo. Cic. 

But these pronouns are sometimes used when the persons to which 
they refer are the objects of an action, feeling, &c. ; as, JVam neque ink 
negiigentld, neque odio id fecit tuo, For he did it neither through neglect 
nol- hatred of you. Ter. See § 211, Rem. 3. 

These pronouns, as reflexives, are often omitted ; as, Quo reverlar 7 in 
patriam 7 sc. meam ; Whither shall I return .? to (my) country ? Ovid. 
Dextrd munera porrezit, sc. sud. Id. 

REFLEXIVES. 

*^ 208. Rem. 37. Sui and suus properly refer to the sub- 
ject of the proposition in which they stand ; as, 

Oppidani /acr/iM5 in se ac snosfasdum consciscunt, The citizens decide 
on a foul crime against themselves and their friends. Liv. 

They continue to be used in successive clauses, if the subject remains 
the same ; as, Ipse se quisque dUigit, non ut aliquam a se ipse mercedem 
cxlgf/.t ca.ritdtis suas, sed qudd per se sibi quisque carus est. Cic. 

(1.) In dependent clauses, in which the subject does not remain the 
same, the reflexives commonly refer to the leading subject, when the 
thoughts, language, purposes, &c., of that subject are stated; as, Ariovis- 
tits prcedicdvit, non sese Gallis, sed Gallos sibi bellum intuUsse ; Ariovistus 
declared that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but the Gauls upon 
iiim. Cobs. Homerum Colophonii civem esse dicunt suum. The Colopho- 
nians say that Homer is their citizen. Cic. Tyrannus petivlt ut se ad 
iimicitiani tertlum ascriberent. Id. 

('2.) If, however, the leading subject, whose thoughts, <&c., are expressed, 
is indefinite, the reflexives relate to the subject of a dependent clause ; as, 
Medearn prcrdicant {sc. homines) infugdfratris sui membra in iis locis, 
qud se parens persequeretur, dissipavisse. Cic. Ipsum regem tradunt 
operdtum his sacris se abdidlssc. Liv, 

(3.) When the leading verb is in the passive voice, the reflexive often 
refers not to its subject, but to that which would be its subject in the 
active voice ; as, A Caisdre invitor vt stni sibi legdtus, i.e. Caesar me in- 
mtat ; I am invited by CoBsar to become his lieutenant. Cic. 

So when the subject is a thing without life, the reflexive may relate to 
some other word in the sentence, which denotes a thing with life ; as, 
Canum tarn fida cuslodla quid significat aliud, nisi se ad homlnum com.' 
moditdtes esse gencrdtos ? Qic. 

(4.) Instead of sui and suns, whether referring to a leading or a subor 



176 SYNTAX.— NOMINATIVE. 

dinate subject, ipse is sometimes used, to avoid ambiguity from the simi- 
larity of both numbers of sui, and to mark more emphatically than suus^ 
the person to which it relates ; as, Jugurtha legates misit qui ipsi liberisque 
mtam peterent, Jugurtha sent ambassadors to ask life for himself and 
his children. Sail. Ea molestissime ferre homines delent, quce ipsorum 
culpd contracta sunt. 

(5.) In the plural number, with inter, se only is used, if the person or 
thing referred to is in the nominative or accusative ; se or ipse, if in any 
other case ; as, Fratres inter se cum forma, turn moribus similes; Brothers 
resembling each other both in person and character. Cic. Feras inter 
sese conciliat natura. Cic. Inctdunt aliqua a doctis etiam inter ipsos 
Ttiutud reprehensa. Quinct. 

(6.) When reference is made not to the subject of the proposition, but to 
some other person or thing, hie, is, or ille, is generally used, except in the 
cases above specified; as, Themistccles servum ad X.eYxem misit, ut e'l nun- 
tiaret, suis verbis, adversarios ejus in fugd esse ; Themistocles sent his 
servant to Xerxes, to inform him (Xerxes), in his (Themistocles') name, 
that his (Xerxes') enemies were upon the point of flight. Nep. But 
when no ambiguity would arise, and especially when the verb is of the 
first or second person, sui and suus sometimes take the place of the de- 
monstrative pronouns ; as, Suam rem sibi salvam sistam, I will restore his 
property entire to him. Plant. 

On the contrary, the demonstratives are sometimes used for the reflex- 
ives ; as, Helvetii persuddent Raurdcis, ut una cum iis projiciscantur ; The 
Helvetii persuade the Rauraci to go with them. Cass. In some instances, 
a reflexive and a demonstrative are used in reference to the same person ; 
as, Ita se gessit (sc. Ligarius) ut ei paceni esse expediret. Cic. Sometimes 
the reflexives refer to different subjects in the same sentence ; as, Ariovis- 
tus respondit, neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse (CaBs.) ; where 
se refers to Ariovistus, and sua, to neminem, 

(7.) Suus often refers to a word in the predicate of a sentence, and is 
then usually placed after it ; as, Hunc cives sui ex urbe ejecerunt, Him his 
citizens banished from the city. Cic. Titurius quum procul Ambiorigem, 
suos cohortant em, conspexisset. Cbbs. 

Suus, and not hujus, &c., is used when a noun is omitted ; as, Octavium, 
quem sui (sc. amici) Ccesdrem salutdbant ; Octavius, whom his followers 
saluted as Cassar. 

Suus is also commonly used when two nouns are coupled by cum, but 
not when they are connected by a conjunction ; as, Ptolemceus amicos 
Demetrii cum suis rebus dimlsit; Ptolemy dismissed the friends of Deme- 
trius with their effects. Just. 

(8.) Suus sometimes denotes Jit, favorable ; as. Sunt et sm.dona parenti, 
There are likewise for my father suitable presents. Virg. Mphenus utebd- 
tur populo sane suo. Cic. Sometimes it signifies peculiar ; as, Molles sua 
thura Sabcei, sc. mittunt, i. e. the frankincense for which their country was 
famous. Virg. 



NOMINATIVE. 

SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE AND VERB- 

<§) 209. A verb agrees with its subject-nominative, in 
number and person ; as^ 



SYNTAX. SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 177 

Ego lego, I read. JVos leglmns, We read. 

Tu scribis, Thou writest. Vos scribltis, You write. 

Equus currit, The horse runs. Equi currunt. Horses run. 

Remark 1. The nominatives ego^ tu, nos, vos, are seldom 
expressed, the termination of the verb sufficiently marking the 
person ; as, cupio, I desire ; vivis, thou livest ; habemus^ we 
have. See § 147, 3. 

But when emphasis or distinction is intended, they are expressed ; as, 
Ego reges ejecij vos tyrannos introducltis ; I banished kings^ you introduce 
tyrants. Auct. ad Her. Nos, nos, dico wpe/rth, consules desumtts. Cic. 
Tu es pair onus J tu pater. Ter. 

Rem. 2. The nominative of the third person is often omit- 
ted : — 

(1.) When it has been expressed in a preceding proposi- 
tion : — 

(a.) As nominative ; as, Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, et in ocednum 
infiuit (Caes.) ; or {b.) in an oblique case ; as, Cursorem miseruntj %U id 
nuntidret, sc. cursor. Nep. 

(2.) When it is a person or thing conceived or exhibited as 
indefinite. 

Thus homines is often omitted before aiunt, dicunt, ferunt, &c. ; as, Ut 
aiunt, As they say. Cic. Maxima admirantur eum, qui pecunid non move- 
tur. Id. 

This omission of the nominative is common in the clause preceding a 
relative ; as, Q^ui Bavium non odit, amet tuacarmlna, McBvi, sc. homo ; May 
(he) who hates not Bavius, like your verses, Maevius. Virg. Vastdtur agri 
quod inter urbem ac Fidenas est, sc. id spatium. Liv. Sunt quosJ2WcU....se, 
homines ; There are (those) whom it delights. Hor. Est qui nee veteris 
pocula Massici spernit, sc. homo. Hor. Here sunt quos and est qui are 
equivalent to quidrim, aliquis, or aliqui. So, Est quod gaudeas, There is 
(reason) why you should rejoice. Cic. Neque erat cur fuller e vellent. Ovid. 
Est ubi id valeat. Cic. Est, ciim non est satins, &c. Auct. ad Her. In 
the latter cases, the adverbs are equivalent to in quo, sc. loco, tempore. 

Rem. 3. The nominative is often wantijig : — 

(1.) Before verbs denoting the state of the weather, or the 
operations of nature ; as, Fulgurat, It lightens. PJin, Ningit, 
It snows. Virg. 

(2.) Before the third person singular of the passive of neuter 
verbs ; as, 

Favetur tibi a me, Thou art favored by me. Ejus orationi veherrunter 
ah omnibus reclamdtum est. Cic. See § 184, 2. 

A nominative, however, is expressed before the passive of some neuter 
verbs, which, in the active voice, are followed by an accusative; as, 
Pugna pugndta est. Cic. See § 232, (1.) 

(3.) Before the neuter of the future passive participle with 

est ; as, 

Dolendum est primum ipsi tibi, You yourself must first grieve. Hor. 
Orandiim €st, ut sit mens sana in c-orpore sano. Juv- 



1 78 SYNTAX.— SUB JE CT-NOMINATI VE . 

(4.) Before the impersonal verbs miseret, pcenitet, pudet\, 
tcedet, and piget ; as, 

Eos ineptidrum pcemtet, They repent of their folHes. Cic. Miseret te 
aliorum, tui te nee miseret necpudet. Plaut. Me civitdtis morutn piget tcedet- 
que. Sail. In such examples, the sense will sometimes permit us to supply 
fortuna, conditio, memoria, &c. So in the expression Venit in mentem, 
It came into mind; as, In mentem venit de specula, sc. cogitatio, &c. 
Plant. 

An infinitive or clause sometimes forms the subject of these verbs ; as, 
Te id millo modo puduit facere, To do that by no means shamed you. Ter. 
JS^on pcBnitet me, quantum profecerim. Cic. 

(5.) When the subject of the verb is an infinitive or partici- 
ple (either alone or with other words), one or more propositions, 
or an adverb. (See § 201, IV. 1.) The verb is then in the 
third person singular ; as, 

Vacare culpa magnum est solatium, To be free from fault is a great con- 
solation. JYeque est te fallere quidquam. To deceive you in any thing is 
not (possible.) Virg. Mentiri non est meum. Plant. Te non istud audi- 
visse mirum est, That you have not heard that i& wonderful. Cic. '' Sum- 
mum jus, summa in^nxm,^' factum est jam tritum sermone proverbium. Id. 
JYi degeneratum in aliis Iiuic quoque decori offecisset. Liv. Sin est ut velis 
manere illam apud te. Ter. JVec profuit Hydrce crescere per damnum, 
geminasque resumere vires. Ovid. Die mihi, eras istud, Postume, quando 
venit 7 Tell me, Postumus, when does that to-morrow come .^ Mart. 
Parumwe campis atque JYeptuno super fusum est Latini sanguinis ? Hor. 

This construction is especially common with impersonal verbs ', as, 
Oratorem irasci 7ion decet ; That an orator should be angry, is not be- 
coming. Cic. Hoc fieri et oportet et opus est. Id. Me pedibus dclectat 
claudere verba. Hor. Interest omnium recte facere. Cic. Casu accidit, 
ut, id quod Romee audierat, primus nuntiaret. Id. Sometimes a neuter 
pronoun is interposed between a proposition and its verb ; as, Facere quce. 
libet, id est esse regem. Sail. 

(6.) Before potest, cwpit or coeptum est^ incipit^ desmit, debet ^ 
solet, and videtur, when followed by the infinitive of an imper- 
sonal verb ; as, 

Pigere eum, facti coepit, It began to repent him (i. e. he began to repent) 
of his conduct. Just. Sapientia est una, qua prceceptrice, in tranquiilitdte 
vivi potest. Cic. Tcedere solet avdros impendii. Quinct. 

Rem. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted ; as, 

Di meliora piis, sc. dent; May the gods grant better things to the pious. 
Virg. Verkm Ikec hactenus, sc. diximus. Cic. This omission is most 
common with the verb sum ; as, Nam Polydorus ego, sc. sum ; For I am 
Polydorus. Virg. Omnia pr cedar a rar a, so,, sunt. Cic. So in compound 
tenses ; as, Agra mulctdti, sc. sunt. Liv. 

Rem. 5. The nominative is sometimes found with the infin- 
itive ; as. 

Interim quotidie Ccesar JEduos frumentum flagitare, Meanwhile Csesar 
was daily demanding corn of the ^dui. Caes. JYos pavidi trepidare metu. 
Virg. Id horrendum ferri. Id. In such cases, coepit or cceperunt is gene- 
rally supposed to be understood : sometimes other verbs may be supplied, 



SYNTAX. — -SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 179 

but often the infinitive seems to be used instead of the imperfect indic- 
. ative. 

Rem. 6. The relative qui may refer to an antecedent either 
of the first, second, or third person ; and its verb takes the per- 
son of the antecedent ; as, 

Ego qui lego, I who read. Tu qui scribis, Thou who writest. Eqmis qui 
currit, The horse which runs. 

Rem. 7. Verbs in the first person plural, and the second 
person singular, are sometimes used to express general truths ; 
as, 

Quain multa facimus causd amicorum! How many things we do (i. e. 
men do) for the sake of friends ! Cic. Si vis me fiere, doUndum est ipsi 
tibi, Whoever wishes me, &c. Hor. 

Rem. 8. The accusative is sometimes used for the nominative by at- 
traction. See § 206, (6.) (b.) 

Rem. 9. The verb sometimes agrees with the predicate-nominative, 
especially if it precedes the verb ; as, Amantiuvfi irce amoris integratio est, 
The quarrels of lovers are a renewal of love. Ter. Vestes, quas geritis 
sordida lana fuit. Ovid. 

Rem. 10. The verb sometimes agrees, not with the principal nomina- 
tive, but with one in apposition with it; as, Tangri, civitas Gallice^fontem 
habet insignem ; The Tungri, a state of Gaul, has a remarkable fountain. 
Plin. 

Rem. 11. A collective noun has sometimes a plural verb ; 
as, 

Pars epulis onerant mensas, Part load the tables with food. Virg. 
Turba muni. Ovid. Pars utrdque avXdi eiRnt. Li v. Atria turba tenent ; 
veniunt leve vulgus eMxitque. Ovid. 

(1.) A plural verb, joined to a collective noun, usually expresses the ac- 
tion, &c., of the individuals which that noun denotes. In Cicero and 
Livy, this construction scarcely occurs in simple sentences ; but it is often 
used, when the subject of the verb is not expressed in its own, but in a 
preceding clause ;. as, Hoc idem generi humdno evenit, quod in terrd col- 
locati sint. Cic. 

(2.) When two or more clauses have the same collective noun as their 
subject, the verb is frequently singular in one, and plural in another; as, 
Jam ne node quidem turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosque carcerem 
minabantur. Liv. Gens eddem, quce te crudeli Daunia bello insequitur, 
nos si pellant, nihil abfore credunt. Virg. 

(3.) Tantum, followed by a genitive plural, has sometimes a plural verb, 
like a collective noun; as, Quid hue tantum hominum incedunt? Why 
are so many men coming hither .'' Plant. 

(4.) A plural verb is often used after uterque and quisque, pars. ...pars, 
and alius.... alium, or alter.... alterum, on account of the idea of plurality 
which they involve ; as, Uterque eorum ex castris exercitum educunt, Each 
of them leads his army from the camp. Caes. Intimus quisque libertorum 
vincti abreptl^we (sunt.) Tac. Jilius alium, ut prodium incipiant, circum- 
spectant. Liv. 

This construction may be explained by the following passage, where 



180 SfNTAX.^-^SUBJEGT-NOMiNATlf^i 

the plural is placed first, and then the singular, denoting its parts ; Ceterij 
suo quisque tempore, adetunt. Liv. See § 204, Rem. 10. 

Rem. 12* Two or more nominatives singular, not in appo- 
sition, generally have a plural verb ; as, 

Furor \rs.que mentem prsecipitant, Fury and rage hurry on (my) mind. 
Virg. iyum (Etas, metus, magister, prohibebant Ter. 

(1.) If the predicate belongs to the several nominatives jointly, the verb 
is always plural; as, Grammatice quondam ac musice junctse fuerunt. 
Quinct. 

(2.) A singular rerb is often used after several nominatives 
singular, especially if they denote things vi^ithout life ; as, 

Mens enim, et ratio et consilium in senihus est. Cic. Benejicentia, lib- 
eralitas, bonitas,justitiafundUus tollitur. Id. This construction sometimes 
occurs with names of persons; as, Gorgias, Thrasymdchus, Protagoras, 
Prodicus, Hippias in honor e fuit. Cic. Cur Lysias et Hyperldes amatur .'' 
Id. 

(3.) When one of the nouns is plural, the verb is generally so ; but 
sometimes it is singular, when the plural noun does not immediately pre- 
cede it ; as, Dii te pendtes patriique, et patris imago, et domus regia, et in 
domo regdli solium, et nomen Tarquinium creat vocsitque regem. Liv. 

(4.) When each of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, the verb 
agrees with the last ; as, Hoc et ratio doctis, et necessitas harhdris, et mos 
gentihus, etferis natura ipsa praescripsit ; This, reason has dictated to the 
learned, and necessity to barbarians, and custom to nations, and nature 
itself to wild beasts. Cic. Et ego, et Cicero mens flagitabit. Id. Turn 
SBtas Yuesque, turn avita gloria animum stimulabat. Liv. So when the 
subject consists of two infinitives ; as, Et facere, et pati fortia, Romdnum 
est. Cic. 

Unus et alter usually takes a singular verb ; as, Dicit unus et alter 
hremter, Two in succession speak briefly. Cic. Uruis et alter assuitur 
pannus. Hor. 

(5.) When the nominatives are connected by aut, sometimes 
the plural, but commonly the singular, is used ; as, 

8i Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret, If Socrates or Antisthenes should 
say. Cic. Ut quosque studium privdtim aut gratia occupa,veruni. Liv. 

The plural is necessary with disjunctives, if the subject includes the 
first or second person ; as, Qudd in Decemviris neque ego neque Ccesar 
habiti essemus. Cic. 

(6.) A nominative singular, joined to an ablative by the preposition cum, 
sometimes has a plural verb ; as, Bocchus, cum peditibus, postremam 
Romdnam aciem invadunt ; Bocchus, with his foot soldiers, attacks the 
rear of the Roman army. Sail. Ipse dux, cum aliquot principibus, ca- 
piuntur. Liv. 

(7.) If the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with 
the second rather than the third ; as. 

Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus ; If you and Tullia are 
well, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Hcec neque ego neque tu fecimus. Ter. 
Ego populusque Romdnus helium judico f?iC\oque. Liv. 

Yet sometimes the verb agrees in number and person with the nearest 



SYNTAX. PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 181 

nominative, and is understood with the other; as, Vos ipsl et sendtus 
frequens restltit. This is always the case when the action of the verb is 
qualified with reference to each nominative separately; as, Ego ndsi.rt^ 
in feliclter vivis. 

Rem. 13. The interjections en, ecce, and O, are sometimes 
followed by the nominative ; as, 

En Pridmtis! Lo Priam! Virg. Ecce homo Catienus/ Cic. vir 
fortis atque amicus! Ter. 

PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 

*§)210, A noun in the predicate, after a verb neuter 
or passive, is put in the same case as the subject, when it 
denotes the same person or thing ; as, 

Ira furor hrevis est, Anger is a short madness. Hor. Ego vocor Lycon- 
ides, I am called Lyconides. Plaut. Ego incedo regina, I walk a queen. 

So when the subject is in the accusative ; Judicem me esse, non docto- 
rem, volo, Cic. Te parentem Asice vis dud et haberi. Id. 

Sometimes a dative, denoting the same object, both precedes and fol- 
lows a verb neuter or passive. See § 227, Note 1. 

Remark 1. Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles, 
standing in the predicate, after verbs neuter or passive, and 
relating to the subject, agree with it in case. 

The gender and number of such adjectives, &c. are determined by § 205. 

Rem. 2. The noun in the predicate is sometimes in a different number 
from the subject ; as, Sanguis erant lachrpmce, Her tears were blood. Ovid. 
Ossa la,pisjiunt. Id. 

Rem. 3. The verbs which most frequently have a noun, &c., in the 
predicate agreeing in case with their subject, are, 

(1.) The substantive verb sum; as, Ego Jovis sum, filius. Plaut. Disce 
esse pater. Ter. 

(2.) Certain neuter verbs, denoting position or motion ; as, cado, eo, 
evddo, existo, fugio, incedo, jaceo, maneo, sedeo, sto, venio, &c. Thus, 
Rex circuibat pedes. The king went round on foot. Plin. Quos judicdbat 
non posse oratores evadere. Cic. Ego huic causce patronus exstiti. Cic. 
Manet altd mente repostum judicium Paridis. Virg. 

(3.) The passive of verbs denoting 

(a.) To name or call ; as, appellor, dicor, nominor, nuncupor, perhibeor, 
salutor, vocor. Thus, Cognomlne Justus est appelldtus, He was called by 
the surname Just. Nep. Aristceus ollvce dicltur inventor. Cic. Ego 
potjta salutor. Hor. 

(b.) To choose, render, or constitute ; as, constituor, creor, decldrorf 
desio-nor, eligor,jio, reddor, renuncior. Thus, Dux a Romdnis electus est 
Q. Fabius. Postquam ephehns fact us est. Nep. 

(c.) To esteem or reckon ; as, censeor, credor, dcprehendor, existimor, 
feror, habeor.judicor, numeror, putor, reperior, videor. Thus, Credebar 
sanguinis auctor ego. Ovid. Malim videri timidus qudm parum prudens. 
Cic. 

16 



182 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 

Note 1. With several passives of the last class, when followed by a 
predicate -nominative, an infinitive of sum is expressed or understood; as, 
Amens mihi fuisse videor. Cic. Atilius prudens esse putabdtur. Id. So 
with dicor (to be said), and perhibeor ; as, Verus patrixB diceris esse pater. 
Mart. 

Note 2. »^udlo is sometimes used by the poets like appellor ; as, Tu 
rexque paterg^we audisti coram. Hor. 

Rem. 4. A predicate-nominative is used after many other verbs, to 
denote a purpose, time, or circumstance of the action ; as, Comes additus 
JEolideSj bolides was added as a companion. Virg. Lupus ohamhulat 
nocturnus. Id. Appdret liquido subllmis in cBthere Msus. Id. So with 
an active verb ; Audivi hoc puer. Cic. Sapiens nil facit invltus. Id. 
Rempuhlicam defendi adolescens. Id. 

Rem. 5. The noun opus, signifying need, is often used as a predi« 
cate after sum. It is, in such cases, translated by the adjectives needful, 
necessary, &c. ; as, Dux nobis et auctor opus est. Cic. Mvlti opus sunt 
boves. Varr. (Dixit) aurum et ancillas opus esse. Ter. 

Rem. 6. When the pronoun, which is the subject of an infinitive, is 
omitted, the case of the predicate is sometimes, in the poets, attracted into 
that of the subject of the verb on which the infinitive depends ; as. Uxor 
invicti Jovis esse nescis, \. e. te esse uxorem. Hor. Retulit Jljax esse Jovis 
prongpos. Ovid. 



GENITIVE, 
GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 

<5> 211. A noun which Umits the meaning of another 
noun, denoting a different person or thing, is put in the 
genitive ; as, 

Amor gloricB, Love of glory. Vitium irce, The vice of anger. 

Arma Jichillis, The arms of Achilles. Nembrum. custos, The guardian of 

Fater patrice, The father of the the groves. 

country. Amor habendi, Love of possessing. 

In the first example, amor denotes love in general ; glorice limits the 
afiection to the particular object, glory. Such universally is the effect of 
the genitive, depending upon a noun. See § 201, III. 

Remark 1. The genitive denotes various relations, the most common 
of which are those of Source ; as. Radii solis, The rays of the sun ; — 
Cause ; as, Dolor podagra, The pain of the gout ; — Effect ; as, Arflfex 
fnu'ndi,T\ie Creator of the world; — Possession; as, Domus Ccesdris, The 
house of Caesar ; — Object ; as, Cogitatio alicvjus rei, A thought of some- 
thing ;— Purpose ; as. Apparatus triumphi, Preparation for a triumph ; — 
A WHOLE ; as. Pars hominum, A part of men; — Character ; d.s, Adoles- 
cens summcB audacice, A youth of the greatest boldness ; — Material or 
COMPONENT parts ; as, Monies auri, Mountains of gold ; Acemus scutorum, 
A heap of shields. 

Rem. 2. The genitive is called subjective, when it denotes 
the subject of the action, feeling, di-c, implied in the noun 



SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 183 

•which it limits. It is called objective, when it denotes the 
object of such action, &lc. ; as, 

Subjective, Objective, 

Facta virorum, Deeds of men. Odium vltli, Hatred of vice. 

Dolor ammi, Grief of mind. .^inor virtiitls, Love of virtue. 

Junonis ira, The anger of Juno, Desidertum otii. Desire of leisure. 

Whether a genitive is subjective or objective, is to be determined by 
the meaning of the words, and by their connection. ThuSj pi'ovidfMtia 
Dei signifies the providence of God, or that exercised by him 3 timor Dei, 
fear of God, or that exercised towards him. The same or similar v/ords, 
in different connections, may express both significations. Thus, metus 
hostiumy fear of the enemy, may mean that felt either by themselves or by 
their opponents. So vubius Ulyssis (Virg.) denotes the wound which 
Ulysses had given ; vulnus ^ueoi, (Id.) that which ^neas had received. 

When ambiguity would arise, instead of the objective genitive, a prep- 
osition, with an accusative or ablative, is commonly used • as. Amor in 
rempuhlicaniy for reipubliccB ; Love to the state. Cic. Odium erga Romdnos, 
for Romanorum. Nep. Cura dc salute pair ice, for saLvtis. Cic. Prceddtor 
ex sociis, for sociorum. Sail. 

Rem. 3. A substantive pronoun, which limits the meaning 
of a noun, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Cu7'a, mei, Care for me. Ovid. Pars tui, Part of thee. Id. JYostri nun- 
cius, Our messenger. Virg. Magna mei imago. Id. 

Instead of the subjective or possessive genitive of a substan- 
tive pronoun, the corresponding adjective pronoun is commonly 
used ; as, 

Cura mea, My care, i. e. the care exercised by me. Yet the genitive 
sometimes occurs ; as, Tui unius studio , By the zeal of yourself alone. Cic. 

Sometimes, also, an adjective pronoun occurs instead of the objective 
genitive ; as, Mea injuria. Injury to me. Sail. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the genitive of a noun, also, a possessive adjective is 
often used ; as, Causa regm, for causa regis. Cic. Herllis^ZzM^, for /jeri 
jllius. Id. Evandrius ensis, for Evandri. Virg. Herculeus labor, for 
Herculis. Hor. Civilis /wror, for civium. Hor. 

Rem. 5. The dative is sometimes used like the objective 
genitive ; as, 

Exitium pecori, A destruction to the flock. Virg. PrcBsiditim reis, A 
defence to the accused. Hor. Decus amicis. Id. Erit ille mihi semper 
Deus. Virg. Dicor tibi frater. Mart. Auctor fid senatui. Cic. Huic 
causae patronus exstiti. Id. Quern exitum tantis malis sperdtis 7 Sail. 
Romanis imperdtor. Id. Murcena legdtus Ltucullofuit. Cic. 

In these cases, the noun which is limited by the dative, denotes a char- 
acter, feeling, &c.,and the dative the object towards which that character, 
&c., is exhibited or exercised. This construction sometimes occurs with 
verbal nouns, whose primitives are followed by the dative ; as, Obtempe- 
ratio legibus, Obedience to laws. Cic. Traditio alteri. Id. In some 
instances, also, an accusative follows a verbal noun; as. Quid tibi hanc, 
curatio est rem ? Plant. 

1. Instead of the possessive and subjective genitive, also, a dative is some- 
times used, as the remote object of a verb ; as, Sese omnes flenfes Ceesari 
ad pedes projecarunt ; They all, weeping, cast themselves at the feet of 
Ccesar. Cses. Cai corpus porrigitur, For v/hom the body is extended, 
I. c. whoso body is extended. Virg. Transfigitur scutuvi PulfiOni. Cods. 



184 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 

Rem. 6. When the limitmg noun denotes a property, 
character, or quality, it has an adjective agreeing with it, and 
is put either in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir exempli recti, A man of correct example. Liv. Adolescens summcB 
audacicB, A youth of the greatest boldness. Sail. Fossa pedum viginti, A 
ditch of twenty feet. Cses. Pulchritudine eximid femina, A woman of 
exquisite beauty. Cic. Maximo natu jilius, The eldest son. Nep. So 
Quinquaginta annorum imperium. Id. Iter unius diei. Cic. Galha. 
tribus et septuaginta annis. Tac. Fossam sex cubitis altam. Liv. 

Sometimes both constructions occur in the same proposition ; as, Len- 
tulum nostrum, eximia spe, summas virtu tis adolescentem. Cic. Scrobis 
latus pedum duorum, alius dupondio et dodrante. Plin. 

(1.) A genitive sometimes supplies the place of the adjective ; and the 
noun denoting the property, &c., is then always put in the ablative; as, 
Est bos cervi figura, ....of the form of a stag. Cass. Uri specie et colore 
tauri. Id. 

(2.) The genitive, in this sense, sometimes occurs without an adjective ; 
as, Hominem nan nauci. Plant. Homo nihili. Varr. So, Frtitex palmi 
altitudine. Plin. Transtra digiti pollicis crassitudine. Caes. In which 
examples unius may be understood with the genitives. 

Whether the genitive or ablative is preferable in particular cases, can 
enly be determined by reference to classical authority. 

Note. Nouns denoting extent of time or space, after other nouns, 
are often put in the accusative. See § 236. 

Rem. 7. The noun limited is sometimes omitted ; as, misercB sortis I 
so. homines; O (men) of wretched fortune! Lucan. £d Didnce, so. 
(Bdem. Ter. Hectoris Jindromdclie, sc. uxor. Virg. Suspicionis vitandm, 
sc. causa. Tac. 

The omitted noun may sometimes be supplied from the preceding 
words; as, Cujumpecus? an Melibcei? JVon; verum JEgonis, sc. pecus. 
Virg. An adjective is often expressed referring to the noun omitted;, 
as, JVullam virtus aliam mer cedent desiderat, prceter hanc (sc. mercedem) 
laudis. Cic. 

Rem. 8. The noun limited is often wanting in the predicate 
of a sentence after sum. This usually happens, 
(1.) When it has been previously expressed ; as, 
HcBC domus est Csesaris, This house is CsBsar's. Nomen aura tarn scepe 
vocdtum esse putans J\^ymph(B. Ovid. JVaves oner arias ^ quarum minor nulla 
erat duum millium amphorum, i. e. quarum minor nulla erat quam navis 
duum, &c. Cic. 

(2.) When it is a general word denoting a person, an animal, 
&c. ; as, 

Thucydides. qui ejusdem cBtdtisfuit. sc. homo ; Thucydides, who was of 
the same age. Nep. Midtum ei detraxit, qttod alienee erat civitdtis, sc. 
homo or civis. Id. Summi ut sint laboris efficiunt, sc. animalia. Cass. 
(Claudius) somni brevissimi ei'at. Suet. Mird sum alacritdte. Cic. Vulgus 
ingenio mobili erat. Sail. Kon est juris sui. Lucan. Potestdtis sucb esse. 
Liv. Suarumque rerum erant. Id, 

(3.) When it is a general word denoting thing, for which the 
vjox^s part, property , duty, office, characteristic, &.C., are com- 
monly supplied ; as, 

Temeritas est Jlorentis cBtdtls, prudentla sencctutis, Rashness is (the char- 



SYNTAX.- — GENITIVE AFTER NOUNS. 185 

Jicteristic) of youth, prudence of old age. Cic. Est hoc Galllca conswtu- 
diJiis. Cobs. Omnia hostium erant. A paucls emi, quod inultorum easet. 
Sail. Tills happens especially when the subject of the verb is an infinitive 
mood, or an entire clause ; as, Adolescentis est majdres natu revcreri^ It is 
(the duty) of a youth to reverence the aged. Ovid. Cujusms koTntnis est 
errdrej nullltis nisi insipientis, in err ore per sever are. Cic. Pauperis est 
numerdre pecus. Ovid. JVegdvit moris esse GrcBcorum, 2it in convivio vl-o- 
rum accuiJiberent mulieres. Cic. Nihil tara (Equandce libertdtis esse. Li v. 
So when the verb is omitted ; Tamen officii duxit, exordre patreiri^ so. 
esse. Suet. 

(4.) The same construction sometimes occurs after jio, and some other 
verbs ; as, Asia Romanorum facta est, Asia became (a possession) of the 
Romans. Just. Primum stipendium meruit annorum decern septemque. 
Nep. 

(5.) The limited noun is sometimes wanting, when it is a general word, 
though not in the predicate after sum ; as, Magni formica laborisy sc. artt- 
mal ; The ant (an animal) of great labor. Hor. So Ei venit in mentem 
potestdt'is tucB, sc. memoria^ or the like. Cic. 

(6.) The limited noun is wanting also, when, instead of the genitive, a 
possessive adjective or pronoun is used ; as, Humdnum est errdre, To err 
is human. Ter. Hcb partes fuerunt tuce. Cic. Non est mentlri meum. Ter. 
See § 211, Rem. 3, and 4. 

Note. Grammarians differ in regard to the manner of supplying the 
word which is wanting, when it denotes a thing. Some suppose that 
negotium is understood ; others supply ofjicium^ munus, opus, res, causa,, &c. 
It seems, however, rather to be an instance of a construction common in 
Latin, to omit a noun when a general or indefinite idea is intended. See 
§ 205, Rem. 7, (2.) The words to be supplied in English are various, 
according to the connection. 

Rem. 9. The limiting noun is sometimes omitted ; as, Tria millia^ 
sc. passuum. In most cases of this kind, an adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle, is expressed in the genitive. 

Rem. 10, Two genitives sometimes limit the same noun, one of which 
is commonly possessive or subjective, and the other objective ; as, Agar 
memnonis belli gloria, Agamemnon's glory in war. Nep. Illius adminis- 
tratio provincias. Cic. Eorum dierum consuetudine itineris nostri exerci- 
tus perspectd. Caes. 

Rem. 11. Opus and usus, signifying need, are rarely limited by a gen- 
itive ; as, Argenti opus fuit, There was need of money. Liv. Ad consi- 
Hum pensandum temporis opus esse. Id. Prooemii non semper usus est. 
Quinct, Si quo operas eorum usus est. Liv. In a few instances, they are 
limited by an accusative ; as, Puero opus est cibum (Plant.) ; Usus est 
hominem astutum (Id.) ; but in general they are limited by an ablative. 
See § 243. 

Rem. 12. The relation denoted by the genitive in Latin, is, in English, 
generally expressed by of, or by the possessive case. The objective gen- 
itive may often be rendered by some other preposition ; as, Remedium 
doldris, A remedy for pain. Injuria patris, Injury to a father. Descensus 
Averni, The descent to Avernus. Ira belli. Anger on account of the 
war. Potestas rei, Power in or over a thing. 

Note. Certain limitations of nouns are made by the accusative with a 
preposition, and by the ablative, either with or without a preposition. 
16* 



186 



SYNTAX. (;F.\TTIVE AFTER PARTITIVES, 



GEMTIVE AFTER PARTITIVES. 



^ ^15. Nouns, adjectives, adjective pronouns, and ad- 
verbs, denoting a part, are followed by a genitive denoting 
the whole ; as. 

Pars ciritdth. A part of the siMe. .XnlJa sordn/m, No one of the sis- 
ters. Mq^ris phUosophorurn. Some one of the philosophers. Qui^ m^rta- 
/ww ? Who oi" mortals ? Major jureywrn. The elder of the youths. Doc- 
tisi^ynvs Ro7?i/imynim. The most learned of the Romans. MuUum pccii?ii<€f 
Much (of) money. ^rtf/.s cloqucfiti(£. Enough of eloquence. Uh\7uini 
g€$Uium surna^ ? Where on earth are we ? 

Note. Tlie g-enitive thus governed denotes either a ninnhcr, of wliich 
the partitive designates one or more individuals ; or a 7rhoIe, of which 
the partitive designates a }x>rtion. In tlie latter sense, it commonly fol- 
lows neuter adjectives and adjective pronouns, aixi adverbs. 

Remark 1. The nouns which denote a part are pars, ncmOj 
nihil, &:.c. ; as, 

J\^emo fwstrum. No one of us. Oimiium rerum niliil e^ agricidturd vie- 
Uus. Cic. 

Rem. 2, Adjectives and adjective pronouns, denoting a 
part of a number, including partitives and words used parti- 
tively, comparatives, superlatives, and numerals, are followed 
by the genitive plural, or by the genitive singular of a collec- 
tive noun. 

(1.) Partitives; as. ?/7/?/jf, nvUns. soly^, aliiis, vtcr , tUerqut, lUcrainqye, 
uterrU, iitcrlihet, neuter, alter, aUeriUcr. altquis, quid/im, qidspwin. qvisqvis^ 
quisque, qixi^quam, qincmiq^iie , uniisquisq^ite, qui^ 7 qui 7 qfiwt7 qvvtus7 quo- 
tusquisquc 7 tot, ah^wt, ywnvvJIi, 'plcriqve, mutti, pauci, medium. Thus. 
Qui^qui^ deonnn, \Vlioever of the gods. Ovid. Cori^dum alter, One of 
the consuls. Liv. Multi homumm ,\l^i\j men. Plin. 

(2.) Words used partitively ; as, Expcditi mihtum, The light-armed 
soldiers. JLiv. Super i deorum, The gods above. Hor. Sancte de^r^inu 
Viror. Df.geiures mnum. Plin, Pischim fcmino'. Id. 

(3.) Comparatives and superlatives ; as, Doctwr juvcnum. Oratorum 
prmstarUissi mus. 

(4r) Numerals, both cardinal and ordinal ; also the distributive siii^uH; 
as. Eqiiitum centum quinquaginta intcrfccti, A hundred and fifty of tlie 
horsemen ^\'ere killed. Curt. Siipiaitum octAvus. Hor. Sin^ulos vestrum. 
Curt. 

Note 1. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two in- 
dividuals or classes ; the superlative denotes a part of a number greater 
than two ; as. Major fratrum. The elder of two brothers: MaxlrmLS fra- 
trum. The eldest of three or more. 

In like manner, utcr. alter, and neicter. generally refer to two ; quis, alius, 
and 7iidtus, to more than two ; as. Uter nostrihn 7 Which of us (two .'') 
Qiiis reMruiJi 7 Which of you (three or more ?) 

Note 2. A'ostrum. and restrum are used after partitives, &c., in 
preference to nostri and vestri ; yet the latter sometimes occur. 

Note 3. The partitive word is sometimes omitted; as, Fies nobilium 
tu quoque fontium, sc. inuis. Hor. 



SYNTAX.— GENITIVK AFTER PARTITIVES. 167 

Note 4. The noun denotiii^r the whole, after a partitive word^ is oflen 
put ill the ablative, with the prepositions de, e, ex, or in, or in the accusa- 
tive, with apnd or inter ; as. JS'emo de iis. Alter ex censoribus. Liv. Unus 
vx niultis. Cic. Acerriimis ex senslbus. Id. Primus inter omnes. Virg. 
Croesus inter reges opulent issimiis. Sen. A pud Helvetios nohilisslmos. 

Note 5. The whole and its parts are frequently placed in apposition, 
distributively ; as, Interfectores, pars in forum^ pars Syracusas pergunt. 
Liv. See § 204, Rem. 10. 

Note 6. Cuncti and omnes, like partitives, are sometimes followed by a 
genitive plural ; as, Attains Macedonum fere omnibus persudsit, Attains 
persuaded almost all the Macedonians. Liv. Cunctos hominum. Ovid. 
Canctas provinciarum. Plin. 

In the following passage, the genitive singular seems to be used like that 
of a collective noun : Totiiis a?^iem injustitioe nulla aipitafior est, &.c. Cic. 
Oif. 1,13. The phrase Rem nullo modo probabilem omnium (Cic. Na,t. 
Deor. 1, 27,) seems to be used for Rem nullo omnium modorum probabilem. 

Rem. 3, The genitive denoting a whole, may depend on a 
neater adjective or adjective pronoun. With these the genitive 
singular is commonly used ; as, 

Plus eloquentice. More (of) eloquence. Tantum Jidei, So much fidelity. 
Id temporis, That time. Ad hoc oitdtis. Sometimes the plural ; as, Id 
miseriarum . Ter. 

Note 1. Most neuter adjectives, thus used, denote quantity ; as, tantum, 
quantum, aliquantum, plus, minus, dim^idium, multum, nimium, plurimum, 
reliquum ; to which 3idd medium^ summum, ultimum, aliud, &c. The pro- 
nouns thus used are hoc, id, illud, istud, quod, and quid, with its com- 
pounds. 

Most of these may either agree with their nouns, or take a genitive ; 
but the latter is more common. Tantum, quantum, aliquantum, and plus, 
when they denote quantity, are used with a genitive only, as are also quid 
and its compounds, when they denote a part, sort, &c., and quod in the 
sense of quantum. Thus, Quantum crevit JVilu^, tantum spei in annum 
est. Sen. Quid mulieris uxoremhabes? What kind of a woman.... Ter. 
Aliquid formae. Cic. Quid hoc rei est ? What does this mean ? Ter. 
Quod, auri, quod argenti, quod ornamentorum jfiaY, id Verres abstulit. 

Note 2. Neuter adjectives and pronouns are scarcely used with a gen- 
itive, except in the nominative and accusative. 

Note 3. Sometimes the genitive ailer th^se adjectives and pronouns 
is a neuter adjective, of the first and second declension, without a noun ; 
as, Tantum boni, So much good. Si quid habes novi, If you have any 
thing new. Cic. Quid reliqui est ? Ter. JVihil is also used with such a 
genitive ; as, JVlhil sinceri, No sincerity. Cic. This construction some- 
times, though rarely, occurs with an adjective of the third declension ; as, 
Si quidquara non dico civllis sed humdni esset. Liv. 

Note 4. Neuter adjectives in the plural number are sometimes 
followed by a genitive, either singular or plural, with a partitive significa- 
tion ; as, Extrema imperii. The frontiers of the empire. Tac. Pontes et 
viarum angusta, The bridges and the narrow parts of the roads. Id. 
Opdca locorum. Virg. Antlqua fosderum. Liv. Cuncta camporum. Tac. 
Exercent colles, atque horum asperrima pascunt. Virg. See § 205, Rem. 9- 

Rem. 4. The adverbs sat, satis, pantm, nimis, abunde, largx- 



188 SYNTAX.— GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

te7% afdtim, and partim, used partitively, are often followed by a 
genitive; as, 

Sat rationis, Enough of reason. Virg. Satis loquentice.parum sapienti(B ^ 
Enough of fluency, yet but httle wisdom. Sail. JVimis insididrum. Cic, 
Terr oris et fraudis ahunde est. Virg. Auri etargentilargiter. Plant. Co- 
pidrum affdtim. Liv. Ciim partim illorum mihi familiarissimi essent. Cic. 

Note 1. The above words, though generally adverbs^ seem, in this use, 
rather to be nouns or adjectives. 

Note 2. The genitives gentium, terrdrum^ loci, and locorum, are used 
after adverbs of place ; d,^, tjsquam gentium, Any \f\iexe. Plant. Ubl ter- 
rdrum suniTis ? Where in the world are we ? Cic. »^hlre qud terrdrum 
possent. Liv. Ubi sit loci. Plin. Eo loci, In that place. Tac. Eodcm 
loci res est. Cic. J\''escire quo loci esset. Id. But the last three examples 
might perhaps more properly be referred to Rem. 3. 

The adverbs of place thus used are ubi, ubinam, ubicunque, ubiubi, 
ubivis, usquam, nusquam, quo, quovis, quoquo, aliqud, eo, eodem. Loci 
also occurs after ibi and ibidem; gentium after longt ; as, Ibi loci, In that 
place. Plin. Abes longt gentium. Cic. Vicinice is used in the genitive 
after hic and hue by the comic writers ; as, Hic proximo vicinice. Plaut. 
Hue vicinice. Ter. 

Note 3. Hue, eo, quOf take also a genitive in the sense of degree ; as, 
Ed insolentiae furoris^z^e processit, He advanced to such a degree of inso- 
lence and madness. Plin. HucenimmsAoiUTavcntum est. Curt. Hiiccinc 
rerum venimus? Pers. Ed miseriarum. Sail. Quo amentisR progressi 
sitis. Liv. 

Note 4. Loci, locorum, and temporis, are used after the adverbs adhur, 
inde, interea, postea, tum, and tunc, in expressions denoting time ; as, 
Adhuc locorum. Till now. Plaut. Inde loci, After that. Lucr. Interea- 
loci, In the mean time. Ter. Postea loci, Afterwards. Sail. Turn tem- 
poris. Just. Tunc temporis. Id. Locorum also occurs after id, denoting 
time; as, Ad id locorum. Up to that time. Sail. 

Note 5. The genitive ejus sometimes occurs after quoad, in such con- 
nections as the following : Quoad ejus fieri possit. As far as may be (Cic.) ; 
where some think quod, in the sense of quantum, should be read, instead 
of quoad. 

Note 6. Pridie and postridie, though reckoned adverbs, are followed 
by a genitive, depending on the noun dies contained in them; as, Pridie 
ejus diei, The day before that day. Cic. Pridie insididrum. Tac. Pos- 
tridie ejus diei. Cass. When they are followed by an accusative, ante or 
post is understood. 

Note 7. Adverbs, in the superlative degree, like adjectives, are 
followed by a genitive ; as, Optime omnium. Best of all. Cic. Minime. 
gentium, By no means. Ter. 



GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

^213. A noun, limiting the meaning of an adjective, 
is put in the genitive, to denote the relation expressed in 
Enghsh by of, or in respect of; as, 

Avidus laudis, Desirous of praise. Plena timoris. Full of fear. 
Appetens glorice, Desirous of glory. Egenus aquce. Destitute of water. 
Memor virtiitis. Mindful of virtue. Doctus fundi, Skilful in speaking. 



SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 189 

So J\tescia mens fad, A mind ignorant of fate. Virg. Impdtens ircBy 
Unable to control anger. Liv. Homines expertes veritatis, Men destitute 
of trutii. Cic. Lactis abundans, Abounding in milk. Virg. Terra ferax 
arhorumj Land productive of trees. Plin. Tenax propositi vir, A maji 
tenacious of his purpose. Hor. JEger anXmi, Sick in mind. Liv. Integer 
vitce scelerisque purus, Upright in life, and free from wickedness. Hor. 

From the above examples, it will be seen^that the genitive after an 
adjective is sometimes translated by other words besides of, or in respect 
of, though the relation which it denotes remains the same. 

Remark L The adjectives v^^hose signification is most 
frequently limited by a genitive, are, 

(1.) Verbals in ax; as, capax, edax^ ferax, fugax^pervlcaXj tenax, &c. 

(2.) Participials in ns, and a few in tus ; as, amans, appetens, cupiens, 
patiens, impatiens, sitiens ; — consultics, doctus, expertus, inexpertus^ instietus, 
insoUtus. 

(3.) Adjectives denoting 

Desire and Disgust ; as, avdrus^avldus, cupidiis, studiosiLs ; fastidiosus. 

Knowledge and Ignorance ; as, callidus, conscius, gnarus, perltus, 
prudens; rudis, igndrus, inscius, imprudens, imperltus, &c. 

Memory and Forgetfulness ; as, memor ; immemor, &c. 

Certainty and Doubt; as, certus; incertus, amhiguus, duhius, sus- 
pensus, &c. 

Care and Negligence; as, anxius, solicUus, provtdus ; improvvdus, 
securus, &c. 

Fear and Confidence ; as, paxiidus^ timidus; trepldus, impavldus, 
fidenSj interritus, &e. 

Guilt and Innocence; as, noxitis, reits,stisptcttiSyComperitis; innoxius, 
innocens, insons, &c. 

Plenty and Want; as, plenus, dives, satur, largus; inops, egenus^ 
pauper, parous, vacuus, &e. 

Many other adjectives are in like maaner limited by a genitive, espe- 
cially by animi, ingenii, mentis, ircB, militice, belli, laboris, rerum, cevi, 
morum, a.ndfidei. 

Rem. 2. The limiting genitive, by a Greek construction, sometimes 
denotes a cause or source, especially in the poets ; as, Lassus laboris, 
Wear}^ of labor. Hor. Fessus vice. Stat. Fessus maris. Hor. 

Rem. 3. Participles in ns, when used as such, take after them the same 
case as the verbs from which they are derived ; as, Se amxins. Loving 
himself. Cic. Mare terram appetens. Id. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the genitive, denoting of, or in respect 
of, a different construction is used after many adjectives; as, 

(1.) An infinitive or clause ; as, Certus ire, Determined to go. Ovid. 
Cantare periti. Virg. Felicior unguere tela. Id. Anxiv^ quid facto opus 
sit. Sail. 

(2.) An accusative with a preposition; as, Ad rem avidior. Ter. 
Avidus in direptiones. Liv. Animus capax ad proecepta. Ovid. Ad 
casum fortunam^we felix. Cic. Ad fraudem callidus. Id. DiUgens ad 
custodiendum. Id. JVegligentior in patrem. Just. Vir ad discipllnam 
peritu^. Cic. Ad bella rudis. Liv. Potens in res bellica«. Id. 

(3.) An accusative without a preposition, chiefly in the poets ; as, 
Nudus membra. Bare as to his limbs. Virg. Os, humeros^'we dco simiUs. 
Id. CeiQT^fuJvu?. Hor. See § 234, IL 



190 SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 

(4.) An ablative with a preposition ; as, Avldus in pecuniis, Eager in 
regard to money. Cic. Anxius de fama. Quinct. Rudis in jure civlli. 
Cic. Peritus de agricultura. Varr. Prudens in jure civili. Cic. Reus 
de vi. Id. Purus ab cultu humdno. Liv. Certior f actus de re. Cic. 
Solicitus de re. Id. Super scelere suspectus. Sail. Inops ab amicis. Cic. 
Pauper in sere. Hor. Modicus in cultu. Plin. Ab aquis sterilis. Apul. 
Copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab equitatu^?'?7i2^5. Id. 

(5.) An ablative without a preposition ; as, Arte rudis, Rude in art. 
Ovid. Regni crimine insons. Liv. Compos mente. Virg. Prudeiis 
consilio. Just. JEgcr pedibus. Sail. PrcEstans ingenio. Cic. ModUus 
severitate. Tac. JS'ikil insidiis vacuum. Cic. Amor et melle et felle est 
fecundissimus. Plant. 

In many instances, the signification of the accusative and ablative after 
adjectives differs, in a greater or less degree, from that of the genitive. 

Rem. 5. As many of the adjectives, which are followed by a genitive, 
admit of other constructions, the most common use of each, with particu- 
lar nouns, can, in general, be determined only by recourse to the diction- 
ary, or to the classics. Some have, 

(1.) The genitive only; as, benignu^, exsors, impos , impotens , irritus , 
liber dlis, munificus. prcelargus, and many others. 

(2.) The genitive more frequently ; as, compos, censors, egenus, exhmrcs, 
expers,ferti(is, indigus, parens, pauper, prodigus, sterilis, prosper, insatid- 
tus, insatiabilis. 

(3.) The genitive or ablative indifferently ; as, copiosus, dives, fecundiis, 
ferax, immunis, indnis, inovs, largus, modicus, immodicu^, nimius, opulen- 
tus, plenus, potens, purus, refertu^, satur, vacuus, uber. 

(4.) The ablative more frequently ; as, abundans, alienus, cassusi 
extorris,Jirmus,f(Etu^,frequens, gravis, gravidus, jejunum, injirmus, liber y 
locuples, IcBtus, mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pollens, satidtus, tenuis, 
truncus, viduus. 

(5.) The ablative only ; as, bedtus, mutllus, tumidus, turgidus. 

For the construction of the ablative after the preceding adjectives 
see § 250. 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives which are usually limited by a dative, some- 
times take a genitive instead of the dative ; as, similis, dissimilis, &c. 
See § 222, Rem. 2. 



GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 

<§> 214. Sum^ and verbs of valuing, are followed by a 
genitive, denoting degree of estimation ; as, 

A me argentum, quanti est, sumito y Take of me so much money as (he) 
is worth. Ter. Magni cestimdbat pecuniam, He valued money greatly. 
Cic. Ager nunc pluris est, quam tuncfuit. Id. 

Remark 1. This genitive may be, 

(1.) A neuter adjective of quantity ; as, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, 
magni, permagni, plurimi, maximi, minimi, parvi, tantldem, quanticunque, 
quantivis, quantillbet, but not multi and majoris. 

(2.) The nouns assis,flocci, nauci, niMli, pili, terundi, and also pensi 
and hujus. 



SYNTAX. GENITIVE AFTER VERBS. 191 

Rem. 2. The verbs of valuing are eestimo, existimOj ducOj faclo^ habeo^ 
pendoy putOj deputo, taxo, to w^hich may bo added refert and interest. 
Thus, Ut quanti quisque se ipse facial, tuniijiat ab amicis ; That as much 
as each one values himself, so much he should be valued by his friends 
Cic. Sed quia parvi id duceret. Id. Honor es si magni no7i putemus. Id. 
JVon sissis facis ? Catull. JVeque quod dixi, fiocci existimat. Plant. Illud 
mea magni interest, That greatly concerns me. Cic. Parvi refert jus 
dici. Id. 

Note 1. .^qui and honi are put in the genitive after /ocio and consulo ; 
as, JVo5 aequi homque faclmus. Liv. Boni consuluit, He took it in good 
part. Plin. 

Note 2. After cBstimo, the ablatives magna, permagno, parvo, nihUo, 
are sometimes used; as, Data magno eestlmas, accepta parvo. Sen. So 
other ablatives, when definite price is denoted. Pro nikilo, also, occurs 
after du^o, habeo, and puto. Sonihil with cestimo and moror. 

Note 3. With refert and interest, instead of the genitive, an adverb or 
neuter accusative is often used ; as, Multum refert. Mart. Plurimum 
inter cr it. i MY. Tua m\i\\ refer eb at. Ter. Q,md autemillius interest? Cic. 

Note 4. The neuter adjectives above enumerated, and hujus, may be 
referred to a noun understood, as pretii, mris, ponderis, momenti ; and 
may be considered as limiting a preceding noun, also understood, and 
denoting some person or thing indefinite ; as, JEstimo te magni, i. e. horn- 
inem magni pretii. Scio ejus ordines auctoritdtem semper apud te magni 
fuisse, 1. e. rem magni momenti. The words assis, &c., may also be con- 
sidered as depending on an omitted noun, as prctio, rem, &c. 

For tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, denoting price, see § 252. 

^215. (1.) Misereor, mis er esco, n.nd the impersonals 
miseret, pcenitet, pudet, tcedet, and pigety are followed by a 
genitive of the object in respect to which the feeling is 
exercised ; as, 

Miseremlni sociorum, Pity the allies. Cic. Miserescite regis. Pity the 
king. Virg. Tui me miseret, mei piget, I pity you, and am sorry for my- 
self. Ace. Eos ineiptmruin poemtet. Cic. Fiditns me pudet pig etque. Ter. 
Me civitdtis moTum piget tcedetque. Sail. So the passive; JYunquam stis- 
cepti negotii eum pertcesum est. Nep. Lenitudinis eorum pertcesa. Tac. 
Miseritum est me tudrum fortunarum. Ter. Cave te fratrum miseredtur, 
Cic. 

Miser escit is sometimes used in the same manner ; as, JYunc te miser escat 
mei. Ter. Misereo, in the active voice, also occurs with a genitive ; as, 
Ipse sui miseret. Lucr. Pertcesus ignaviam suam occurs in Suetonius. 

Remark. The genitive after the above impersonals seems to depend 
on an indefinite subject which is omitted. See § 209, Rem. 3, (4.) In- 
stead of the genitive, an infinitive or clause is sometimes used as a subject; 
as, Non me hoc jam dicere pudebit. Cic. JVon pcenitet me quantum pro- 
fecerim. Id. These verbs have also sometimes a nominative, especially 
a neuter pronoun ; as, Me quidem hcec conditio non pasnitet. Plaut. JVon 
te hsec pudent 7 Ter. 

Miseret occurs with an accusative, instead of a genitive ; as, Menedemi 
vicem miseret me. Ter. 

These verbs also take an accusative of the person exercising the feeling 
which they express. See § 229. Rem. 6. 



192 SYNTAX.-— GENITIVE AFTER VERB§. 

(2.) Satago is followed by a genitive denoting m ichat re^ 
sped ;- as, 

Is satagit rerum sudrum, He is busily occupied with his own affairs. 
Ter. This compound is often written separately. Agito, with sat, in like 
manner, is followed by a genitive ; as, Nunc agitas sat tutetudrum rerura. 
Plaut. 

<§> 216. Recordor, meminij reminiscor, and obliviscor, 
are followed by a genitive or accusative of the object 
remembered or forgotten ; as^ 

^ Hujus meriti recordor, I remember his merit. Cic. Omnes gradus cBtdtis 
recordor turn, I call to mind all the periods of your life. Id. Memini vivo- 
rum, I am mindful of the living. Id. Numeros memini^ I remember the 
measure. Virg. Cinnam memini, I remember Cinna. Cic. Reminisci 
veteris famse. Nep. Reminisci amicos. Ovid. Injuriarum ohliviscitur. 
Nep. Obliviscere Graios. Virg. 

Remark 1. These verbs seem sometimes to be considered as active, 
and sometimes as neuter. As active, they take an accusative regularly ; 
as neuter, they take a genitive, denoting that in respect to which mem- 
ory, &c. are exercised ; as, Ohlivisci controversiarum, To be forgetful of 
(in respect of) controversies. 

Rem. 2. Recordor and memini, to remember, are sometimes followed 
by an ablative with de ; as, Petlmus ut de suis liberis .... recordentur. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Memini, signifying to make mention of, has a genitive, or an 
ablative with de ; as, Meque hujus rei meminit poeta. Quinct. Meministi 
de exsulibus. Cic. For the genitive with venit in mentem, see § 211, 
Rem. 8, (5.) 

<§) 217. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, 
and acquitting, are follow^ed by a genitive denoting the 
crime ; as, 

Arguit me furti. He accuses me of theft. Alterum accusat probri, He 
accuses another of villany Meipsum inertiuB condemno. Cic. 

Remark 1. To this rule belong the verbs of 

Accusing ; accuso, ago, arcesso, arguo, citOy defero, increpo, incuso, 
insimulo, postulo, and more rarely alligo, anquiro, astringo, capto, increp- 
%to, urgeo, interrogo. 

Convicting ; convinco, coarguo, prehendo. 

Condemning; damno, condemno, infdmo, and more rarely ji^tZico, wota, 
plector. 

Acquitting ) ahsolvo, libero, purgo, and rarely solvo. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the genitive, an ablative with de is often used ; as, 
Accusdre de negligentia. Cic. De vi condemndti sunt. Id. De repetun- 
dis est postuldtus. Id. Sometimes with in; as, In quo te accuso (Cic); 
and after libero, with a or ab ; as, A scelere liberdti sumus.^ Cic. 

With some of the above verbs, an ablative without a preposition is often 
used; as, Liberdre culpa. Cic. Crimen quo argui posset. Nep. Procon- 
siilem postulaverat repetundis. Tac. This happens especially with general 
words denoting crime; as, scelus, malejicium, peccdtum, &c.; as, Me 
peccato solvo. Liv. The ablatives crimine and nomine, without a prepo- 
sition, are often inserted before the genitive ; as, Arcessere aliquem crimine 
ambitils. Liv. Nomine sceleris conjurationisque damndti. Cic. 



SYNTAX. GENITIVK AFTER VERBS. 193 

Rem. 3. The punishment is expressed either by the genitive, the 
ablative, or the accusative with ad or in; as, Damndtus iongi laboris 
(Hor.) ; Quadrupli condeinndri (Cic.) ; Damndre pecunid (Just.), ad 
pwnam (Traj. in Plin.), m metallum (Plin.) ; — sometimes, though rarely, 
by the dative ; as, Damndtus morti. Lucr. In like manner, caput is used 
in the genitive or ablative ; as, Duces capitis damndtos. Nep. JVec capTte 
damndrer. Cic. So with some other verbs besides those of accusing, &c. 
Quern ego capitis perdam. Plant. Me capitis periclitdtum memlni. Apul. 
With plecto and plector, caput is used in the ablative only. 

Rem. 4. Jlccuso^ incilso, insimulo, instead of the genitive, sometimes 
take the accusative, especially of a neuter pronoun ; as. Si id me non 
accusas. Plant. Quae me incusaveras. Ter. Sic me insimuldre falsum 
faclnus. Plant. See § 231, Rem. 5, 

Rem. 5. The following verbs of accusing, &c., are not followed by a 
genitive of the crime, but, as active verbs, by an accusative : — caluninior, 
carpo^ corripio, criminor, culpo, cxcuso, multo, puniOy reprehendo, sugUiOj 
taxOy traduco, vitupero ; as, Culpdre infecunditdtem agrorum. Colum. 
Exciisdre errorem et adolescentiam. Liv. 

This construction also occurs with some of the verbs before enumerated ; 
as, Ejus avariiiam perjidiamque accusdrat. Nep. Culpam arguo, Liv.' 
With mulio, the punishment is put in the ablative only, without a prepo- 
sition ; as, Exsiliis, morte multantur. Cic. 

^218. Verbs of admonishing are followed by a gen- 
itive denoting that in respect to which the admonition is 
given ; as, 

Millies temporis monet^ He admonishes the soldiers of the occasion. 
Tac. Jldmomhat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suce. Sail. 

Remark 1. The verbs of admonishing are moneo, admoneo, cow,mo7ieOj 
commonefacio. Instead of the genitive, they sometimes have an ablative 
with de ; as, De sde Telluris me admones (Cic.) ; — sometimes a neuter 
accusative of an adjective pronoun or adjective ; as, £05 hoc moneo (Cic.) ; 
Illud me admoneo (Id.) ; Multa admonemur (Id.) ; — and rarely a noun ; 
as, Eam rem nos locus admonuit. Sail. 

Rem. 2. These verbs, instead of the genitive, are often followed by an 
infinitive or clause ; as, Soror monet succurrere Lauso Turnum, His sister 
admonishes Turn us to succor Lausus. Virg. Monet, ut suspiciones vitet. 
CaBs. Monet rationem frumenti esse habendam. Hirt. Immortalia ne 
speres monet annus. Hor. 

<§> 219. Refert and interest are followed by a genitive of 
the person or thing whose concern or interest they denote ; as, 

Humanitdtis rcfcrt, It concerns human nature. Plin. Interest omnium 
rectt facere. It concerns all to do right. Cic. 

Remark 1. Instead of the genitive of the substantive pro- 
nouns, the adjective pronouns mea, tua, sua, nostra, and vestra, 
are used ; as, 

Mea nihil refert, It does not concern me. Ter. Tua et mea mazlmi 
interest, te valere. Cic. Magis reipublicae interest quam mea. Id. 

Refert rarely occurs with the genitive, but often v/ith the adjective 
pronouns. 

Rem. 2. In regard to the case of these adjective pronouns, gramma- 
17 



194 



SYNTAX. GENITIVE OF PLACE. 



rians differ. Some suppose that they are in the accusative plural neuter, 
agreeing with an indefinite noun understood ; as, Interest mea, i. e. est 
inter mm; It is among my concerns. Refert tua, i. e. refert se ad tua; It 
refers itself to your concerns. Others think that they are in the ablative 
singular feminine , agreeing with re, causa, &c., understood. 

Rem. 3. Instead of a genitive, an accusative with ad is sometimes 
used ; as. Ad honorem meum interest quam primiim urhem me venire 
(Cic.) ; Quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (Plant.) ; — sometimes, though 
rarely, an accusative without a preposition ; as, Quid te igUur retulit ? 
(Plant.) ; — or a dative ; as, Die quid referat intra naturce fines viventi. Hor. 

Rem. 4. These verbs often have a nominative, especially a neuter pro- 
noun; as, Id mea minimt refert. Ter. Hoc vehementer interest reipuhlica. 
Cic. JVon quo mea inter esset loci natura. Id. 

For the genitives tanti, quanti, &c,, after refert and interest, see § 214. 
^ 220. Many verbs which are usually otherwise construed, 
are sometimes followed by a genitive. This rule includes 

1 . Certain verbs denoting an affection of the mind : ango, discrucior, 
excrucio, fallo, pendco, which are followed by animi ; decipior, desipio, 
fallor, fastidio, invideo, miror, vereor ; as, Absurdt facis qui angas te 
animi. Plaut. Me animi fallit. Lucr. Decipitur laborum. Hor. Desip- 
iebam mentis. Plaut. Jusiiiive ?ie prius mirerbellmelsthdTum. Virg. 

2. The following, in imitation of the Grreek idiom; abstineo (Hor.), 
desino (Id.), desisto (Virg.), laiulo (Sil.), levo (P\u,\xt.) , partictpo (Id.), pro- 
kiheo (Sil.), pur go (Hor.) Regndvit jfopulorum occurs in Horace, for 
which some manuscripts read regndior. 

3. Some verbs denotiTigtofill, to abound, to leant, which are commonly- 
followed by an ablative. Such a,re abundo. careo, compleo, expleo, impJeo^ 
egeo, indigeo, satiiro, scatro; as, AdoJescentem sua temeritatis implet. He 
fills the youth with his own rashness. Liv. Animum explesse flammas, 
Virg. E(reo consilii. Cic. JVo7i tarn artis indigent quam laboris. Id» 
See § § 249 and 250, (2.) 

4. Potior, which also is usually followed by an ablative; as, Ui'bis 
potiri, To gain possession of the city Sail. Potiri regni (Cic), hostium 
(Sail.), rerum (Cic.) Potio (active) occurs in Plautus; as, Eum nunc 
potlvit servitutis, He has made him partaker of slavery. In the same 
writer, potltus est hostium signifies, ^' he fell into the hands of the enemy." 



GENITIVE OF PLACE, 

^221. I. The name of a town in which any thing is 
said to be, or to be done, if of the first or second declen- 
sion and singular number, is put in the genitive ; as, 

Habitat Mileti, He lives at Miletus. Ter. Quid Romcefaciam 7 What 
can I do at Rome .^ Juv. 

Remark 1. Names of islands and countries are sometimes put in the 
genitive, like names of towns; as, Ithdcce vivere, To live in Ithaca. Cic. 
Corcyrce fuimus. Id. Pompeium Cypri visum esse. Caes. Cretce jussit 
considcre Apollo. Virg. JVon Libyce. Id. Romce KumidicBque. Sail. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the genitive, the ablative of names of towns of the 
first and second declension and singular number, is sometimes, though 



SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 195 

rarely, used ; as, Rex Tyro decedit, The king dies at Tyre. Just. Et 
Corintho ct Athenis et Lacedcemone nuncldta est victoria. Id. Pons quern 
ille Abydo fecerat. Id. Hujus exemylar Romii nullum habtmus. Vitruv. 
JVoTi ante Tyro. Virg. 

Rem. 3. The genitives domi, militice, belli, and humiy are 
construed like names of towns ; as, 

Tenuit se domi, He staid at home. Cic. Vir domi clarus. Liv. Un^ 
semper militise et domi futmus, We were always together both at home 
and abroad. Ter. Belli spectdta domique virtus. Hor. MiliticB and belli 
are thus used only when opposed to domi. 

(1.) Domi is thus used with the possessives mece, tu(B, suce, nostr<B, 
vestroij and alienee; as, Domi nostras vixit, He lived at my house. Cic. 
Apud eum sicfui tanquam mesB domi. Id. Sacrijicium, quod alienae domi 
fieret invisere. Id. But with other adjectives, an ablative, with or without 
a preposition, is used ; as. In vidud domo. Ovid. Paternd domo. Id. 
Sometimes also with the possessives ; as, Med in domo. Hor. In domo 
sua. Nep. So, instead of humi, humo is sometimes used, with or without 
a preposition ; as, In humo arenosd. Ovid. Sedere humo nudd. Id. 

(2.) When a genitive denoting the possessor follows, either domi or in 
domo is used ; as, Deprehensus domi Ccesdris. Cic. In domo Ccesdris. 
Id. In domo ejus. Nep. 

(3.) The ablative domo for domi also occurs ; as, Ego id nunc experior 
domo. Plant. Bello for belli is found in Livy, Lib. 9. 26 — Domi belloque. 

(4.) Terroi is sometimes used like humi ; as, Sacra terras celavimus. Liv. 
Viciniee occurs in Plautus — Proximce viciniae habitat. 

(5.) The genitive of names of towns, domi, militice, &e., are supposed 
by some to depend on a noun understood ; as, urbe, oppido, cedihus, solo, 
loco, tempore, &c. 



GENITIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

II. Certain adverbs are followed by the genitive. See § 212, Rem. 4. 

III. The genitive plural is sometimes used after the preposition tenus ; 
a-3, Cumdrum tenus, As far as Cumae (Ccel.) ; Crurum tenus (Virg.) ; Latl- 
rum tenus (Id.) ; — sometimes, also, though rarely, the genitive singular; 
as, Corcyrce tenus. Liv, 



DATIVE, 

DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

^ 222. A noun limiting the meaning of an adjective, 
is put in the dative, to denote the object or end to which 
the quaUty is directed ; as, 

Utllis agris, Useful to the fields. Juv. Jucundtts amicis, Agreeable to 
his friends. Mart. Inimicus quiui, \J n^i'iendly ioxesi. Id. Charta inutilis 
scribendo, Paper not useful for writing. Plin. 

The dative is commonly translated by the prepositions to or for ; but 
sometimes by other prepositions, or without a preposition. 



196 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES. 

Remark 1. Adjectives signifying advantageous, pleasant, 
friendly, fit, like, inclined, ready, easy, clear, equal, and their 
opposites, also those signifying near, many compounded with 
con, and verbals in bilis, are followed by the dative ; as, 

Felix tuisj Propitious to your friends, Virg. Oratio ingrdta Gallis, A 
speech displeasing to the Gauls. Cobs. Amicus tyrannidi, Friendly to 
tyranny. Nep. Lahori inhabilis,\Jnsmied to lohor. Colum. Patri similis, 
Like his father. Cic. Aptum tempori. Id. Malo pronus. Sen. Promp- 
tus seditioni. Tac. Cuivis facile est. Ter. Mihi certum est. Cic. Par 
fratri tuo. Id. Falsa veris finitima sunt. Id. Oculi concolores corpori, 
Colum. Multis bonis flehilis. Hor. 

Many adjectives of other significations are also followed by a dative of 
the end or object. 

After verbals in hills, the dative is usually rendered by the preposition 
by ; as, Tibi credibllis sermo, A speech credible to you, i. e. worthy to be 
believed by you. Ovid. 

The expression dicto audiens, signifying obedient, is followed by the 
dative; as, Syracusdni nobis dicto audientes sunt. Cic. Audiens dicto fuit 
jussis magistratuum. Nep. In this phrase, dicto is a dative limiting audiens, 
and the words dicto audiens seem to form a compound equivalent to obe- 
diens, and, like that, followed by a dative ; thus, JVec plebs nobis dicto 
audiens atque obediens sit. Liv. 

Rem. 2. The adjectives (Equdlis, affinis, alienuSj communis, Jidus, par, 
proprius, simUis, dissimilis, superstes, and some others, instead of a dative 
of the object, are sometimes followed by a genitive ; as, Similis tui, Like 
you. Plant. P^r /iwjz/5. Equal to him. Lucan. Affinis Ca^sdris. V.Max. 
Cujusque proprium. Cic. Superstes omnium. Suet. Tui fidissima. Virg. 

But most of these, when thus used, seem rather to be taken substan- 
tively; as, ^qudlis ejus, His equal. Cic. So in English, "his like," 
" his survivor," &c. 

Rem. 3. Some adjectives with the dative are followed by another case 
denoting a different relation ; as, Mens sibi conscia recti, A mind conscious 
to itself of rectitude. Virg. See § 2] 3. 

Rem. 4. Many adjectives, instead of the dative of the end 
or object, are often followed by an accusative with a preposition. 

(1.) Adjectives signifying advantageous, fit, and the opposite, take an 
accusative of the purpose or end with ad, but only a dative of the person ; 
as. Ad nullamTem utilis. Cic. Locus aptus ad insidias. Id. 

(2.) Adjectives denoting motion or tendency, take an accusative with 
ad more frequently than a dative ; as, Piger ad poenas, ad prsemia velox 
(Ovid.) ; Ad aliquem morbum proclivior (Cic.) ; Ad omne faicinus pardtus 
(Id.); Pronus ad fidem (Liv.); — sometimes with in; as, Celer in pug- 
nam. Sil. 

(3.) Many adjectives, signifying an affection of the mind, sometimes 
have an accusative of the object with in, erga, or adversiis ; as, Fidelis in 
filios. Just. Mater acerba in suos partus. Ovid. Gratus erga me. Cic. 
Gratum adversus te. Id. So Dissimilis in dominum. Tac. 

(4.) Adjectives signifying like, equal, common, &c., when plural, are 
©ften followed by the accusative with inter ; as, Inter se similes. Cic. 
Inter eos communis. Id. Inter se diver si. Id. ' 

Rem. 5. Propior and proximus, instead of the dative, have sometimes 
an accusative without a preposition ; as, Quod vitium propius virtutem 



SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 197 

erat Sail. J^e propius se castra mover ct, petierunt. Caes. ^ger, qui 
proxlmus finem Megalopolitdrnm est, Liv. 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives, instead of the dative, have at times an abla- 
tive with a preposition. Thus, par^ communis, consentaneus, discors, with 
cum; as. Quern par em cum lihevis fecisti. Sail. Consentaneum cum iis 
Uteris. Cic. Civitas secum discors. Liv. So alienus and diversus with 
a or ab; as, Mienus a me (Ter.) ; A ratione diversus (Cic.) ; or without a 
preposition; diS, Alitnum no strd 2in\\c\im. Id. 

Rem. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the poets ; 
as, Jupiter omnibus idem. Virg. Invltum qui servat idem facit occidenti. 
Hor. in the first example, omnibus is a dative of the object ; in the second, 
the dative follows idem, in imitation of the Greek construction with 
avTog, and is equivalent to quod facit is, qui occidit. Idem is generally 
followed not by a case, but by qui, ac, atque, ut, or quam ; sometimes by 
the preposition cum; as, Eodem mecum patre. Tac. Similis and par are 
sometimes, like idem, followed by ac and atque. 

Note. Nouns are sometimes followed by a dative of the object; ,as, 
Virtutibus hosti^. Cic. Caput Italioi omni. Liv. See § 211, Rem. 5. 



DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

^ 223. A noun limiting the meaning of a verb, is put 
in the dative, to denote the object or end, to or for which 
any thing is, or is done ; as, 

Mea domus tibi patet, My house is open to you. Cic. Parsoptdre locum 
tecto, A part choose a site for a building. Virg. Tibi seris, tibi metis ; You 
sow for yourself, you reap for yourself. Plaut. Licet nemini ayntra patriam 
ducere exercitum. It is lawful to no one to lead an army against his country. 
Cic. Hoc tibi promitto, I promise this to you. Id. Hceret latSri letdlis 
arundo. Virg. SvLYdofabulamnarras. Hor. Mihi responsum dedit. Virg 
Sic vos nan vobis fertis aratra boves. Id Omnibus bonis expedit salvam 
esse rempubltcam. Cic. Aptat habendo ensem. Virg. 

The dative is thus used after active and neuter verbs, both personal and 
impersonal, and in both voices. 

Remark 1. The dative after many verbs is rendered not by to or for, 
but by other prepositions, or without a preposition. Many neuter verbs are 
translated into English by an active verb, and the dative after them ig 
usually rendered like the object of an active verb. 

Most verbs after which the signs to and for are not used with the dative, 
are enumerated in this and the following sections. 

Rem. 2. Many verbs signifying to favor, please, trust, and 
their contraries, also to assist, command, obey, serve, resist, 
threaten, and be angry, govern the dative ; as. 

Ilia iihif avet, She favors you. Ovid. Mihi placebat Pomponius, minimi 
displicebat. Cic. Qui sibi fidit. Hor. JVon licet sui commddi causd no- 
cere alteri. Cic. JVon invidetur illi aetati sed etiam favetur . Id. Desperat 
saluti sucB. Id. JVeque mihi vestra decreta auxiliantur. Sail. Imperat aut 
servit collecta pecunia cuique. Hor. Obedire et parere voluntati. Cic. 
Qu^niam factioni inimicorum resistere nequiverit. Sail. Mihi minabdtur. 
Cic. Irasci inimicis. Caes. 
17* 



198 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

So ^idulor. hlandior, commodo, faveo, gratificor, gi'ator, gratulor and 
its verbal gratulahundus, ignosco, indulgeo, palpor, parco, plaudo, studeOf 
suhparasltor ; (Emulor, incommodo, inviaeo, noceo. — Placeo, hbet or lubet ; 
displiceo. — Credo, fido, confido ; despero, diffido. — Adminiculor , auxiliory 
medeor, medlcor, opitulor, patrocinor. — Impero, mando, moderor (to le- 
strain), prcBcipio, tempero. — Ausculto, morigeror, ohedio,ohsecundo,obsequor, 
ohtempero,pareo, — Ancillor.famulor, ministrOy sej'vio, inservio. — Refrdgor, 
reluctor, renitor, repugno, resisto, and, chiefly in the poets, Z?c?Zo, certo, li4Ctor, 
pugno. — Minor, comminor, inter minor. — Irascor, succenseo, to which may 
be added convicior, degenero, exceJlo, nuho (to marry), prcestolor, prcBvaricor, 
recipio (to promise), re/iz/Tzc/o. r es pond co, suadeo, per suadeo, dissuadeo, sup- 
plico, and sometimes lateo and dccet. 

(1.) Many of the above verbs, instead of the dative, are sometimes fol- 
lowed by an accusative ; aS;, adidor, ausculto, blandior, degenero , despero^^ 
iiidulgeo, lateo, medeor, medicor, moderor, prcBsiolor, provideo, &c. ; as, 
AdidCiri alTquem. Cic. Tac. Hanc cace degcneres. Ovid. Indulgeo me. 
Ter. Hujus adventum prcesiolans. Cces. Frovidere rem frumenta- 
rlam. Id. 

Others, as active verbs, have, with the dative, an accusative, expressed 
or understood ; as, impero, mando, ministro, minor, commlnor, interminor^ 
prcBcipio, recipio, renuncio, &c. ) as, Equites imperat civitatihus. CaBS. 
Ministrdre victum alicui. Varr. Deflagrationem urbi et ItalicB toti mina- 
hdtur. Cic. 

(2.) Many verbs which, from their significations, might be included in 
the above classes, are, as active verbs, only followed by an accusative ; as, 
deiecto,juvo, Icedo, offendo, &c. Jubeo is followed by the accusative with 
Tin infinitive, and sometimes, though rarely, by the accusative alone, or the 
dative with an infinitive ; as, Jubeo te bene sperare. Cic. Lex jubet ea 
qu(B facienda sunt. Id. Ubi Britannico ju^sit exsurgere. Tac. Fido and 
confido are often followed by the ablative, with or without a preposition j 
as, Fidere cursu. Ovid. 

<§> 224. Many verbs compounded with these eleven prepo- 
sitions, ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob^post, pr(B,pro, sub, and supers 
are followed by the dative ; as, 

c/^Tinwecoeptis, Favor our undertakings. Virg. Romdnis equitihus life rccaff e- 
runtur, Letters are brought to the Roman knights. Cic. Antecellere omnibus, 
To excel all. Id. Jintctidit'u^religidnem. Nep. JludetqueYius cone urr ere 
virgo. Virg. ExercUum exercitui, duces ducibus compardre. Liv. Ini- 
viinet his ailr. Ovid. Fecuri signum. impressit. Virg. Nox praslio inter- 
venit. Liv. Inter dixit histrionibus scenam. Suet. Meis commodis off ids 
et ohstas. Cic. Cum se hostium telis objecissent. Id. Posthabui mea seria 
ludo. Virg. Certamini prcEsedit. Suet. Hibernis Labienum prceposuit. 
CaBS. Vobis prof ait ingenium. Ovid. Miseris succurrere disco. Virg. 
lis suhsidia submittebat. Cses. Timidis supervenit ./Egle. Virg. So 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adequito, adhcereo, adjaceo, adno, 
adncito, adsto, adstipulor, adsum, adversor, affulgeo, alldbor, annuo, ap- 
pareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, assideo, assisto, 
assvesco, assurgo ; — addo, affero, affigo, adjicio, adjungo, adkibeo, ndmo- 
veo, adverto, alligo, appono, applico, advolvo, aspergo. 

2. AntecSdo, antecello, anteeo, antesto, antevenio, anteverto ; — antefero, 
antchabeo, antepono. 

3. Coh&rco, colludo, concino, congruo, consent/io, consono. convive, and, 
nhiefiy in tlie poets, co&o, concumho, concurro, contendo ; — compdro, com' 
pono, ronfero. conjungo. 



SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER VERBS. 199 

4. JncXdo, i7icumbo, indorniio^ inhio, ingeinisco, inhmreo, innascor, innl* 
tor, insldeo, insidior, insto^ irtsis'o, insiidoy insuUo, invddo, invigllo, illa'^ 
crymo, illudo, inimineo, immorior. iiaitwror, impeiideo, insum ; — immisceOy 
impono, imprimo, infcro, ingerOy injicio, includo^ insero, inspergo, inuro. 

5. Intcrctdo, Interrido, interjacco, intennicOj intersum, intervenio ; — in- 
terdlco, intcrpono. 

6. Obambulo, obcrro, ubcjpnto, obluctor^ obmurinuro,obrepo,obstOj obsisto^ 
obstrepo, obsum, obtrccto, ohvcnio, obversor, occumbo, occurro, occursOj qffi' 
clu ; — obdiicOj objlciOj offero, offundo, oppono. 

7. Postfero, posthabeo, postpono, postputd, postsdrlbo. 

8. PrcBcedoj prcBcurro, prcBeo, prcesideoy pi'celuceo, prceniteo, prcBSum, pra" 
valeOj prmvertor ; — prcefero, priEJicio, ptcepono. 

9. Procumbo, prqficio, propugno, prosum, prospicio, provideo. 

10. Succedo, succumbo, succurrOj siifficiOy suffrdgor, subcresco, suboleOf 
subjacco, subrepo, subsum, sttbvenio ; — subdoj subjugo, submilto, supponOj 
substerno, 

11. SupercurrOy super sto, super sum, supervenio, supervlvo. 

Remark 1. Some verbs, compounded with ab, de, ex, circum, and co/i- 
tra, are occasionally followed by the dative j as, absum, desum, deldbor, 
excido, circumdo, circumfundo , circumjaceo, circumjicio, contradlco, con" 
tra^o ; as, Serta capiti delapsa, The garlands having fallen from his head. 
Virg. JVunqui nummi exciderunt tibi ? Plant. Tigris nrhi circum funditur. 
Plin. 

Rem. 2. Some verbs of repelling and taking away (most of which are 
compounds of ab, de, or ex), are sometimes followed by the dative, though 
more commonly by the ablative ; as, abigo, abrogo, abscindo, aufero, adi- 
7no, arceo. defendo, demo, derogo, detrdho, eripio, eruo, excvtio, cximo, ex- 
torqueo, extrcMo, exuo, surrlpio. Thus, JVec mihi te eripient. Nor shall they 
take you from me. Ovid. Solstitlmn pecori defendite. Virg. Hunc arce- 
bls pecori. Id. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs of differing (compounds of di or dis) likewise 
occur with the dative, instead of the ablative with a preposition ; as, 
differo, discrepo, discordo, dissentio, dissideo, disto ; as, Quantum simplex 
hiiarisque. nepoti discrepet, et quantum discordet parens avaro. Hor. So 
likewise misceo ; as, Mista modestise gravitas. Cic. 

Rem. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of the 
dative, either constantly or occasionally take the case of the preposition, 
which is sometimes repeated. Sometimes, also, one of similar significa- 
tion is used ; as, Ad primam vocem timidas advertUis aures. Ovid. 
yemo eum antecessit. Nep. Inferunt omnia in ignem. Caes. Silex in- 
cumbebot ad amnem. Virg. Conferte hanc pacem cum illo hello. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Some neuter verbs compounded with prepositions, either take 
the dative, or, acquiring an active signification, are followed by the accu- 
sative ; as, Helvetii reliquos Gallos virtute prcecedunt. The Helvetii surpass 
the other Gauls in valor. Caes. Uterque Isocratem cetdte prcecurrit. Cic. 
So prceeo, prccsto, pr aver to. prcecello. 

^ 225. T. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, and malCf 
are followed by the dative ; as, 

Et natara3 ci loglbus sitisfecit, He satisfied both nature and the laws. 
Cic. Piilchniin est benefncere reipublicse. It is honorable to benefit the 
state. Sail. Maledicit vtriqac. Hor. So satisdo, benedico, malefacio. 



200 SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER rERBS* 

These compounds are often written separately ; and the dative always 
depends not on satis ^ benij and male, but on the simple verb. 

II. Verbs in the passive voice are sometimes followed by a dative of the 
agent, chiefly in the poets ; as, Neque cernitur ulli, Nor is he seen by any 
one. Virg. Nulla tudrum audita mihi neque visa sororum. Id. But the 
agent after passives is usually in the ablative with a preposition. 
See § 248. 

III. The participle in dus is followed by a dative of the 
agent; as, 

Semel omnibus calcanda est via leti, The way of death must once be 
trod by all. Hor. Adhibenda est nobis diligentia, We must use dihgence. 
Cic. Vestigia summorum hominuTn sibi tuenda esse dicit. Id. Dolendum 
est tibi ipsi. Id. Faciendum mihi putdvi, ut responderem. Id. 

Remark 1. The dative is sometimes wanting when the agent is in- 
definite ; as, Orandum est, ut sit mens sana in corpore sano. Juv. Hic 
vincendum aut moriendum, milites, est. Liv. In such examples, tibi, vo- 
bis, nobis, homimbus, &e., may be supplied. 

Rem. 2. The participle in du^ sometimes, though rarely, has, instead 
of the dative, an ablative with a or ab ; as, Deus est vencrandus a nobis. 
Cic. 

IV. Verbs signifying motion or tendency are followed by an 
accusative with ad or in ; as, 

Ad templum Pallddis ibant. Virg. Ad praetorem hominem traxit. Cic. 
Vergit ad septemtriones. Caes. In conspectum ventre. Nep. 

So curro, duco, fero,festlno,fugio, incllno, lego, pergo, porto, prcBcipito, 
propero, tendo, tollo, vado, verto. 

So likewise verbs of calling, exciting, &c. ; as, Eurum ad se vocat. 
Virg. Provoca^se ad pugnam. Cic. So aniTno, hortor, incito, invito, la- 
cesso, stimulo, suscito ; to which may be added attineo, conformo, pertineo, 
and specto. 

But the dative is sometimes used after these verbs ; as, Clamor it codo. 
Virg. DuTn tibi liter ce meoe veniant. Cic. After venio both constructions 
are used at the same time ; as, Venit mihi in mentem. Cic. Venit mihi 
in suspicionem. Nep. Eum venisse Germanis in amicitiam cognoverat. 
Cass. Propinquo (to approach) takes the dative only. 

<§) 226. Est is followed by a dative denoting a posses- 
sor ; — the thing possessed being the subject of the verb. 

Est thus used may generally be translated by the verb to have with the 
dative as its subject; as, Est mihi domi pater, I have a father at home. 
Virg. Sunt nobis mitia poma,We have mellow apples. Id. Gratia nobis 
opus est tud. We have need of your favor. Cic. InnocentisB plus periculi 
quam honoris est. Sail. j9n nescislongas re gibus esse manus? Ovid. The 
first and second persons of sum are not thus construed. 

Remark. The dative is used with a similar signification after /ore, sup- 
peto, desum, and dejit ; as, Pauper enim non est, cui rerum swppetit usv£. 
Hor. Si mihi cauda foret, cercopithecus eram. Mart. Defuit ars yobis. 
Ovid. Non defore Arsacidis virtutem. Tac. Lac mihi non dejit. Virg. 

<§> 227. Sum, and several other verbs, are follow^ed by 
two datives, one of vi^hich denotes the object to which, 
the other the end for which, any thing is, or is done ; as, 



SYNTAX. DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 201 

Milii max1,mw est curae, It is a very great care to me. Cic. Spero nobis 
hanc conjunctionem voluptati /ore, I hope that this union will bring pleasure 
to us. Id. Matri puellam dono dedU. Ter. Fabio laudi datum est. Cic. 
Vitio id tibi vertunt. PlauU Id tibi honori habetur. Cic. Maturamt col- 
legce venire auxilio. Liv. 

Remark 1. The verbs after -which two datives occur, are sum^fore^ 
Jio, do, ducOj habeo, relinquo, trihito, verto ; also curro, eo, mitto^proficiscor^ 
cenio, appono, assigno, cedo^ coinjmro^ pateo, svppedlto, and perhaps some 
others. 

Rem. 2. The dative of the end is often used after these verbs, without 
the dative of the object ; as, Exemplo est formica, The ant is (serves) for 
an example. Hor. ^bsentium bona divisui Jkiere. Liv. Rellquit pignori 
putamina. Plant. 

Rem. 3. The verb sum, with a dative of the end, may be variously 
rendered; as by the words brings, affords, serves, &c. The sign /or 
is often omitted with this dative, especially after sum ; instead of it, as^ 
or some other particle, may at times be used ; as, Ignavia erit tibi mag- 
no dedecori. Cowardice will bring great disgrace to you. Cic. Heec res 
€st argumento ; This thing is an argument, or serves as an argument. Id. 
Universos curae habuit. Suet. Una res erat magna usui, .... was of great 
use. Lucil. Quod tibi magnopere cordi est, mihi vehementer displicet ; 
What is a great pleasure, an object of peculiar interest to you, &e. Id. 

Sometimes the words /^, able, ready, <&c., must be supplied, especially 
before a gerund or a.gerundive; as, Chm solvendo civitdtes non essent, .... 
not able to pay. Cic. Divites, qui oneri ferendo essent. Liv. Qiue re- 
stinguendo igmforent. Liv. Radix ejus est vescendo. Plin. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the dative of the ^nd, a nominative is sometimes 
used ; as, Amor est exitium pecori (Virg.) } or an accusative, with or with- 
out a preposition ; as, Se Achilli comitem esse datum dicit ad bellum. Cic. 
Se Remis in clientelam dicdbant. Caes. 

Rem. 5. The dative of the object after sum, often seems rather to 
depend upon the dative of the end, than upon the verb ; as in the exam- 
ple Ego omnibus meis exitio fuero (Cic), in which omnibus meis has the 
same relation to ezitio that pecori has to exitium in the above example 
from Virgil. For the use of the dative after a noun, see § 211, Rem. 5. 

Note 1. The dative is sometimes used after the infinitive, instead of 
the accusative, when a dative precedes, and the subject of the infinitive 
is omitted; as, Vobis necesse €st fortihis esse viris. Liv. See §^205, 
Rem. 6, and 239, Rem. 1. 

Note 2. In such expressions as Est mihi nomen Alexandra, Cui cog- 
nomen lulo additur, the proper name is put in the dative in apposition 
with that which precedes, instead of taking the case of nornen or cogno- 
men. See § 204, Rem. 8. 



DATIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

<§> 228. Some particles are followed by the dative of the 
end or object ; as, 

1. Some adverbs derived from adjectives; as, Proximh castris, Very 
near to the camp. Cees. Congrucnter natural, Agreeably to nature. Cic 

Propius sid^\\\is nrmEJita tentrcnt. Virg. Yii^que hominum. amice vivere 
fd. Bene mihi. hcnf vobis. Pla^it. So obviam ; as. M\\n obviam venisti. 
Cic. 



202 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

2. Certain prepositions, especially in comic writers ; as, Mihi clam est, 
It is unknown to me. Plant. Contra nobis. Id. But in such instances 
they are rather used like adjectives. 

3. Certain interjections; as, Heimihi! Ah me ! Virg. Vcemihif Wo 
is me ! Ter. Vcb metis ! Liv. Vcb te / also occurs in Plautus. 

Note. The dative of the substantive pronouns seems sometimes re- 
dundant, or to affect the meaning but little ; as, Fur mihi e^, .... in my 
opinion. Plant. An ille mihi liber, cui mulier imperat ? Cic. Tongilium 
mihi eduxit. Id. Ubi nunc nobis deus ille magister ? Virg. Ecce tibi 
Sebosus ! Cic. JEfem tibi talentum argenti Philipplcum est. Plant. Sibiis 
sometimes subjoined to suus ; as, Suo siihigladio huncjugulo. Plant. Sibi 
suo tempore. Cic. 



ACCUSATIVE. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

<§> 229. The object of an active verb is put in the 
accusative ; as, 

Legdtos mittunt, They send ambassadors. Cass. Animus movet corpus. 
The mind moves the body. Cic. Da veniam hanc, Grant this favor. Ter.* 
Eum imitdti sunt. They imitated him. Cic. 

Remark 1. An active verb, with the accusative, often takes 
a genitive, dative, or ablative, to express some additional rela- 
tion ; as, 

Te convinco amentias, I convict you of madness. Cic. Da locum meli- 
oribus. Give place to your betters. Ter. Solvit se Teucria luctu, Troy 
frees herself from grief. Virg. See those cases respectively. 

Rem. 2. Such is the difference of idiom between the Latin and English 
languages, that many verbs which are considered active in one, are used 
as neuter in the other. Hence, in translating active Latin verbs, a prepo- 
sition must often be supplied in English ) as, Ut me caveret, That he 
should beware of me. Cic. On the other hand, many verbs, which in 
Latin are neuter, and do not take an accusative, are rendered into English 
by active verbs. 

Rem. 3. The verb is sometimes omitted : — 

1. To avoid its repetition; as, Eventum sendtu^, quem (sc. dare) vide- 
bitur, dabit. Liv. 

2. Dico, and verbs of similar meaning, are often omitted ; as. Quid 
WMlta? quid? JVe multa, sc. dicam. Quid (sc. de eo dicam) quod solus 
sociorum in discrimen vocdtur 1 Cic. 

Rem. 4. The accusative is often omitted : — - 

1. When it is a reflexive pronoun; as, Nox prcecipitat, sc. se. Virg. 
Turn prora avertit. Id. Eo lavdtum, sc. me. Hor. The reflexives are 
usually wanting after certain verbs ; as, aboleo, abstineo, augeo, celero, 
continuo, declino, decoquo.flecto, deflecto, inclino, lavo, laxo, moveo, muto, 
prcBcipito, remitto, ruo, turbo, verto, deverto, reverto ; and more rarely after 
moveo, converto, and many others. 

2. When it is something indefinite, or easily supplied; as, Ego, ad 



SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 203 

quos scriham, nescio^ sc. liter as. Cic. De quo et tecum egi diligenter^ et 
scripsi ad te. Id. Bent fecit Silius. Id. 

Rem. 5. An infinitive, or one or more clauses may supply 
the place of the accusative ; as, 

Da mihi fallere. Hor. Reddes dulce loqui, reddes ridere decorum. Id. 
Cwpio me esse clementem. Cic. Athenienses statuerunt ut naves conscen- 
derent. Id. Vcreor ne a doctis reprehendar. Id. Sometimes both con- 
structions are united ; as, Di iram miserantur indnem amborum, et tantos 
mortalibus esse labores. Virg. 

In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes put in the 
accusative as the object of the verb ; as, JVosti Marcellum, quam tardus sitj 
for JS'osti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cic. Ilium, ut vivat, optant. Ter. 
Rem frumentariam, ut satis commodk supportdri posset, timerc dicebat. 
Caes. 

Rem. 6. The impersonal verbs miseret, pcBnitet, pudet, 
tcedet, and pigety likewise miserescity misereturj and pertcesum 
est, are followed by an accusative of the person exercising the 
feeling ; as, 

Eorum nos miser et, We pity them. Cic. See § 215, (1.) Veritum est 
also occurs with such an accusative ; Quos non est veritum. Cic. 

Rem. 7. Juvat, delectat, faJlit, fugit, and prceterit^ also, 
are followed by an accusative of the person ; as, 

Te hildri ammo esse valdt me juvat, That you are in good spirits delights 
me. Cic. Fugit me ad te scribere. Cic. Illud alterum quam sit difficile, 
non te fugit, nee verb CmsaLiem fefellit. Id. 

For mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, after refert and interest, see § 219, 
Rem. 1. 

For the accusative by attraction, instead of the nominative, see § 206, 
(6,) {b.) 

<§> 230. Verbs signifying to name or call, to choose, render 
or constitute, to esteem or reckon, are followed by two accusa- 
tives denoting the same person or thing ; as, 

Urbem ex Antiochi patris nomine Antiochiam vocdvit. He called the city 
Antioch, &c. Just. Me consalem fecistis . Cic. Sulpicium accusatorem 
suum numerdbat, non competitorem. Id. Ciim vos testes habeam. Nep. 

For the verbs included in this rule, see § 210, Rem. 3, (3.) 

Remark 1. After verbs signifying to esteem or reckon, one of the ac- 
cusatives is often the subject, and the other the predicate, of esse express- 
ed or understood ; as, JVe me existimdris ad manendum esse propensiorem. 
Cic. Yium. diWdiXMm. possuvfius existimdre. Id. Mercurium 077imMm inven- 
torem artium ferunt ; hunc vidrum atque itinerum ducem arbitrantur. 
Caes. 

Rem. 2. Many other verbs, besides their proper accusative, take a 
second, denoting a purpose, time, character, &c.; as, Talem se irw^eidXoxem. 
prcebuit. He showed himself such a commander. Nep. Quare ejus fugm 
comitem me adjungerem. Cic. Hominum opinio socium me ascribit tuis 
laudibus. Id. PrcBsta te eum qui mihi es cognUus. Cic. FUiam tuam 
mihi uxorem posco. Plant. Petit hanc Saturnia munus. Ovid. Such con 
structions may oft«n be referred to apposition, or to an ellipsis of esse. 



204 , SYNTAX. ^ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

<|231. Verbs of asking, demanding^ and teachings 
and celo (to conceal), are followed by two accusatives, one 
of a person, the other of a thing ; as, 

Rogo te nummos, 1 ask you for money. Mart, Posce deos veniam. 
Ask favor of the gods. Virg. Quum I agent quis musicam docuerit Epa- 
minondam, When they shall read who taught Epaminondas music. Nep. 
Antigonus iter omnes celat, Antigonus conceals his route from all. Id. 

Remark 1. This rule includes the verbs of asking and demanding, 
Jiagito, efflagito, obsecro, oro, exorOy percontor, posco, reposcOj postulo^ 
precor, deprecor, rogo, and interrogo ; of teaching, <Zoceo, edoceo, dedoceo, 
and erudio, which last has two accusatives only in the poets. Cingo 
occurs once with two accusatives ; Arma Tribunitium cingere digna latus. 
Mart. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the accusative of a person, verbs of asking and 
demanding often take the ablative with ab or ex ; as, JVon debebam abs te 
has litcras poscere. Cic. Veniam oremus ab ipso. Virg. Istud volebam 
ex te percontdrl. Plant. 

Rem, 3. Instead of the accusative of a thing, the ablative with de is 
also used after many of the above verbs ; as, Sic ego te eisdem de rebus 
interrogem. Cic. De itinere hostium sendtum eddcet. Sail. Bassits noster 
me de hoc libro celdvit. Cic. Sometimes also a dependent clause. 

Rem. 4. Some verbs of asking, demanding, and teaching, are not fol- 
lowed by two accusatives ; as, exigo, peto, qucero, scitor, sciscitor, which 
take an ablative of the person with a preposition ; imbuo, instituo, instruo, 
&c., which are sometimes used with the ablative of the thing, generally 
without a preposition, and are sometimes otherwise construed. 

Rem. 5. Many other active verbs with the accusative of a 
person, sometimes take an accusative of nihil, of the neuter 
pronouns Jioc, id, quid, &/C., or of adjectives of quantity ; as, 

Fabius ea me monuit, Fabius reminded me of those things. Cic. Non 
quo me aliquid juvdre posses. Id. Pauca pro tempore milites hortdtus. 
Sail. Id adjuta me. Ter. JVec te id consulo. Cic. ConsuJo and moneo 
are also found with a noun denoting the thing in the accusative ; as, Con- 
sulam hanc rem amicos. Plant. Eam rem nos locus admonuit. Sail. 

A preposition may often be understood before the above neuter accu- 
satives. See § 235, Rem. 5. 

By a similar construction, genus is sometimes used in the accusative, 
instead of the genitive ; as, Scis me orationes, aut aliquid id genus scri 
here. Cic. JVullas hoc genus vigilias vigildrunt. Gell. So Omnes mulie- 
hre secus. Suet. 

<§> 232* (1.) Some neuter verbs are followed by an accu- 
sative of kmdred signification to their own ; as, 

Vitam viverCjliG live a,\ife. Plant. Fur ere fur or em. Virg. Istam pug- 
nam pugndbo. Plant. Pugndre prcBlia. Hor. hasum insolentem ludere. 
Id. Si non servitutem serviat. Plant. Queror haudfaciles questus. Stat. 
Jurdvi verissimum jusjurandum. Cic. Ignotas jubet ire vias. Val. Flacc. 
Ut suum gaudium gauderemus. CcbI. ad Cic. Projicisci magnum iter. 
Cic. 

(2.) Verbs commonly neuter are sometimes used in an active 
sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative. Neuter verbs 



SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 205 

are also sometimes followed by an accusative, depending on a 
preposition understood. The following are examples of both 
constructions : — 

With oleo 3ind sapio,iind their compounds, redoleo, resipio ; — Olet un- 
gaenta, He smells of perfumes. Ter. Orationes redolentes antiquilatem. 
Cic. Mella herbam earn sapiunt, The honey tastes of that herb. Plin. 
Uva picem resipiens. Id. So Sltio honores. Cic. JVec vox hominem 
sonat. Virg. Suddre mella. Id. Morientem nomine clamat. Id. Quis 
pauperiem crepat? Hor. Omnes una manet nox. Id. Ingrdti animi 
crimen horreo, Cic. Ego meas queror fortanas. Plant. Pastorem, saltd- 
ret uti Cyclopa, rogdbat. Hor. So the passive ; Kunc agrestem Cyclopa 
movetur. Id. Kum id lacrymat vlrgo ? Does the maid weep on that ac- 
count .'' Ter. Quicquid delirant reges, plectuntur Jlchlvi. Hor. JS'^c tu id 
indigndri posses. Liv. Quod duhitas ne feceris. Plin. Nihil lahoro. Cic. 
Corydon ardebat Alexin. Virg. Stygias juravimus undas. Ovid. JVavi- 
gat 8Rquor. Virg. Currimus aequor. Id. Pascuntur sylvas. Id. Multa 
alia peccat. Cic. Exsequias ite frequenter. Ovid. Devenere locos. Virg. 

Accusatives are found in like manner after ambulo, calleo, doleo, equUOj 
gaudeo, gemo, lateo, latro, nxito, palleo, pereo,depereo, procedoj sibiloj tremo, 
trepido, vado, venio, &c. 

In the above and similar examples, the prepositions obj propter, per, ad, 
Slc., may often be supplied. This construction of neuter verbs is most 
common with the neuter accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, 
illud, tantum, quantum,, multa, pauca, alia, cetera, and omnia. 

<§) 233. Many verbs are followed by an accusative depend- 
ing upon a preposition with which they are compounded. 

(1.) Active verbs compounded with trans have two accusatives, one de- 
pending upon the verb, the other upon the preposition ; as, Omnem equi- 
tdtum pontem transducit, He leads all the cavalry over the bridge. Csas. 
Hellespontum copias trajecit. Nep. 

So Ponius scopulos superjdcit undam. Virg. So, also, adverto and 
induco with animum ; as, Id ammzim advertit. Caes. Id quod animum 
induxerat paulisper non tenuit. Cic. So, also, injicio in Plautus — Ego te 
manum injiciam. 

(2.) Some other active verbs take an accusative in the passive voice 
depending upon their prepositions ; as, Magicas accingier artes. To be 
prepared for magic arts. Virg. Classis circumvekUur arcem. Liv. Vec- 
tem. circumjectus fuisset. Cic. l^ocnm prcetei-vectus sum. Cic. 

But after most active verbs compounded Avith prepositions which take 
an accusative, the preposition is repeated ; as, Ccesar se ad neminem ad- 
junxit (Cic.) ; or a dative is used ; as, Hie dies me valdd Crasso adjunxit. 
Id. See § 224. 

(3.) Many neuter verbs take an accusative when compounded with pre- 
positions which govern an accusative, but these sometimes become active; 
as, Gentes qu/B mare illud adjacent. The nations which border upon that 
sea. Nep. Obequitdre 3.gmen. Curt. Inceduntmcestos locos. Tac. Tran- 
silui flammas. Ovid. Succedere tecta. Cic. Ludorum diebus, qui cogniti- 
onem intervener ant. Tac. Adlre provinciam. Suet. Caveat ne proslium 
ineat. Cic. Naves pardtas invenit. Cies. Ingrcdi iter pedibus. Cic. 
Epicuri horti quos modo prceteribdmus. Id. Leones subiere jugum. Virg 
Fama allabitur aures. Id. Alloquor te. Id. 

18 



206 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER VERBS. 

Remark 1. Some neuter verbs compounded with prepositions which 
take an ablative after them, are at times followed by an accusative; as, 
Neminem conveni^ I met with no one. Cic. Qui societatem coieris. Id. 
Aversdri honores. Ovid. Evaditgue celer ripam. Virg. Excedere nume- 
rum. Tac. Exire limen. Ter. Tibur prcejiuunt aqum. Hor. 

Kem. 2. The preposition is often repeated afler the verb, or a different 
one is used; as, In G-alliam invdsit Antonius. Cic. Ad me adlre quosdum 
memini. Id. JSe in senatum accederem. Cic. Regina ad templum in- 
cessit. Virg. Juxta genitorem astat Lavinia. Id. 

Note. Some verbal nouns and verbal adjectives in bundus are follow- 
ed by an accusative like the verbs from which they are derived ; as, Quid 
tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum ? Wherefore do you receive my hus-- 
band hither to you ? Plant. Quid tibi banc aditio est ? Id. Vitabundu^ 
castra. Liv. 

<§> 234. I. Y/hen the active voice takes an accusative both 
of a person and things the passive retains the latter ^ as, 

Rogdtus est sententiam, He w^as asked his opinion. Liv. Interrogatus 
causam. Tac. Segetes alimenta^T/e dehita dives poscebdtur humus. Ovid, 
Motus doceri gaudct lontcos matnra virgo. Hor. Omnes belli artes edoctus. 
Liv. JVosne hoc celdtos tarn din ? Ter. Multa in exits monemur. Cic. 

Note. As the object of the active voice becomes the subject of the 
passive, the passive is not followed by an accusative of the object. 

In other respects, the government of the active and passive voices is, in 
general, the same. » 

Remark 1. Indiw and exuo, though they do not take two accusatives in 
the active voice, are sometimes followed by an accusative of the thing in 
the passive ; as, IndMitur atras vestes, She puts on sable garments. Ovid. 
Thoraca indutus. ¥irg. Exuia est Roma senectam. Mart. So cingo, 
which occurs once in the active voice with two accusatives ; as, Inutile 
ferrum cingitur. Virg. See § 231, Rem. 1. 

Rem. 2. The future passive participle in the neuter gender with est, is 
sometimes, though rarely, followed by an accusative ; as, Multa novis 
rebus quum sit agendum. Lucr. 

II. An adjective, verb, and participle, are sometimes followed 
by an accusative denoting the part to which their signification 
relates ; as, 

JYudus membra, Bare as to his limbs. Virg. Os h-ameTosque deo similis . 
Id, Micat auribus et tremit artus. Id. Cetera parce puer bello. Id. Sib- 
ila colla tumentem. Id. Expleri mentem neqnit. Id. Picti scuta Labici. 
Id. Fractus membra. Hor. Maximam partem lacte xixunt. Caes. 

This construction, which is probably of Greek origin, is usually called 
Synecdoche. It is chiefly used by the poets : the accusative seems to de- 
pend on a preposition understood. 

III. Some neuter verbs which are followed by an accusa- 
tive, are used in the passive voice, the accusative becoming the 
subject, according to the general rule of active verbs ; as, 

Tertia vivUui' cetas. Ovid. Bcllum militabitur. Hor. Dormitur hiems. 
Mart. Multa peccantur. Cic. Aditur Gnossius Minos . Sen. JVeabomni' 
Ims cir cum sister etur. Caes. Hostes invddi posse. Sail. Campus obitur 
aqud. Ovid. Plures ineuntur graticB. Cic. 



SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 207 



ACCUSATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

<§) 235. (1.) Twenty-six prepositions are followed by 
the accusative. 

These are ad, adversiis or adversiim, ante, apud, circa or 
circum, circiter, cis or citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, 
intra, juxta, oh, penes, per, pone, post, prceter, prope, propter, 
secundum, supra, trans^ ultra; as, 

Ad tempium, To the temple. Virg-. Adcersus hastes, Against the enemy. 
Liv. Ci5 i^/icmim, This side the Rhine. Ca3s. Intra muros. Cic. Penes 
regcs. Just. Propter aquce rivum. Virg. Inter agendiun. Id. Ante do- 
vumdiim. Id. 

Remark 1. Cls is generally used with names of places ; citra also 
with other words; as, Ci5 TV«£rwm. Cic. Cis Padurn. Liv. Citra Veliarn. 
Cic. Tela hostium citra. Tac. 

Rem. 2. Inter, signifying between, applies to two accusatives jointly, 
and sometimes to a plural accusative alone ; as, Inter me et Scipionem. 
Cic. Inter natos et parentes. Id. Inter nos. Id. 

(2.) In and suh, denoting tendency, are followed by the accu- 
sative ; denoting situation, they are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Via ducit in urbem, The way conducts into the city. Virg. JS'^oster in 
te amor. Cic. Exercitus sub jugum missus est, The army was sent under 
the yoke. Cass. Magna mei sub terras ibit imago. Virg. Media in urbe, 
In the midst of the city. Ovid. In his fait Ariovistus. Gees. Bella sub 
Ilidcis moenibus gerere, To wage war under the Trojan walls. Ovid. 
Sub nocte silenti. Virg. 

The most common significations of in, with the accusative, are, into, 
toicards, until, for ^ against, — with the ablative, in, upon, among. In some 
instances, in and sub, denoting tendency, are followed by the ablative, and,^ 
denoting situation, by the accusative ; u.s, In conspectu meo audet cenire. 
Cic. JVationes quce in amicitiam popidi Romdni, ditionexnque essent. Id. 
Sub jugo dictator hostes misit. Liv. Hastes sab montem consedlsse. Caes. 

In and sub, in different significations, denoting neither tendency nor 
situation, are followed sometimes by the accusative, and sometimes by 
the ablative ; as. Amor crescit in horas. Ovid. Hostl'em in modum. Cic. 
Quod in bono servo did posset. Id. Sub ed conditione. Ter. Sub poena 
mortis. Suet. 

In expressions relating to time, sub, denoting at or in, usually takes the 
ablative ; denoting near, about, either the accusative or ablative ; as. Sub 
tempore. At the time. Lucan. Sub lucem (Virg.), Sub luce (Liv.), 
About daybreak. 

(3.) >S^wper is commonly followed by the accusative; but when 
it signifies either on or concerning, it takes the ablative ; as, 

Super labentem culmina tecti, Gliding over the top of the house. Virg. 
Super tenero prosternit gramine corpus, He stretches his body on the ten- 
der grass. Id. Multa super Priamo rogitans super Hectore multa, .... con- 
cerning Priam, Slc. Id. The compound desuper is found with the 
accusative, and insuper with the accusative and ablative. 

(4.) Suhter generally takes the ' accusative, but sometimes 
the ablative ; as, 

Subter terras, Under the earth. Liv. Subter densd testudine. Virg. 



208 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 

(5.) Clam is followed either by the accusative or ablative ; 
as, 

Clam vos, Without your knowledge. Cic. Clam patre. Ter. Clam 
also occurs with a genitive — Clam patris (Ter.) j and even with a dative 
— Mihi clam est. Plant. 

Rem. 3. The adverbs versus and usque are sometimes used with an 
accusative, which depends on a preposition understood; as, Brundusium 
versus. Cic. Terminos usque Lihyce. Just. Usque Ennam profecti. Cic. 
Versus is always placed after the accusative. 

Rem. 4. Prepositions are often used without a noun depending upon 
them, but such noun may usually be supplied by the mind ; as, Multis 
post annis, i. e. post id tempus. Cic. Circum Concordice, sc. cedem. 
Sail. 

Rem. 5. The accusative, in many constructions, is supposed to depend 
on a preposition understood. The preposition cannot, however, always 
be properly expressed, in such instances; nor is it easy, in every case, to 
say what preposition should be supplied. For the accusative without a 
preposition after neuter verbs, see § 232. For the case of synecdoche, see 
§ 234, II. The following examples may here be added : — Homo id cetdtis, 
Cic. Quid tihi cetdtis videor ? Plaut. Profectu^ est id temporis. Cic. 
Illud horce. Suet. Devenerc locos. Virg. Propior montem. Sail. Prox- 
imo Pompeium sedebam. Cic. ^ te bis terve summum literas accept. Id. 
Idne estis auctores mihi ? Ter. Vix equidem ausim affirmdre quod quidam 
auctores sunt. Liv. In most of these, ad may be understood. 

ACCUSATIVE OF TIME AND SPACE. 

<§) 236. Nouns denoting duration of time, or extent of 
space, are put, after other nouns and verbs, in the accusa- 
tive, and sometimes after verbs in the ablative ; as, 

Vixi annos triginta, I have lived thirty years. Decreverunt interca- 
larium quinque et quadraginta dies longum, They decreed an intercalary 
month forty-five days long. Cic. Annos natus viginti septem, Twenty - 
seven years old. Id. Dies totos de virtute disserunt. Id. Duces qui una 
cum Sertorio omnes annos fuerant. Cass. Biduum Laodicem fui. Cic. 
Te jam annum audientem Cratippum. Id. Duas fossas quindecim pedes 
latas perduxit. He extended two ditches fifteen feet broad. Caes. Ciirn 
abessem ab Amdno iter unius diei. Cic. Tres pateat ccdi spatium non 
amplius ulnas. Virg. A portu stadia centum et viginti processimTis. Cic. 
Vixit annis viginti novem, imperdvit triennio. Suet. JEsculapii templum 
quinque millibus passuum distans. Liv. VentidAus bidui spatio ahest 
ab eo. Cic. 

Remark 1. Nouns denoting time or space, used to limit other nouns, 
are often put in the genitive or ablative. See § 211, Rem. 6. 

Rem. 2. A term of time not yet completed, may be expressed by an 
ordinal number ; as, JVos vicesimum jam diem patimur hebescere aciem 
horum auctoritdtis . Cic. Punico bello duodecimum annum Italia urebd-- 
tur. Liv. 

Rem. 3. The accusative or ablative of space is sometimes omitted, 
while a genitive depending on it remains ; as, Castra qucB aberant bidui, 
sc. spatium or spatio. Cic. 



SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AFTER ADVERBS, &C. 209 

Rem. 4. To denote a place by its distance from another, the ablative is 
commonly used ; as, M.il\ihns jjassuum sex a Cccsdris castris consedit. Goes. 

For abhinc, with the accusative, see § 253, Rem. 2. For the ablative 
denoting difference of time or space, see § 256, Rem, 16. 

Rem. 5. A preposition is sometimes expressed before an accusative of 
time or space, but it generally modifies the meaning ; as, Qucm per decern 
annos atomw5,.... during ten years. Cic. Q^uce inter decern annos facta 
sunt. Id. Sulcum in quatuor pedes longum cumfecerls. Colum. 

ACCUSATIVE OF PLACE. 

<5) 237. After verbs expressing or implying motion, the 
name of the town in which the motion ends is put in the 
accusative without a preposition ; as, 

Regulus Carthaginem rediit, Regulus returned to Carthage. Cic. 
Capuam flectit iter, He turns his coarse to Capua. Liv. Calpurniits 
Romam proJiciscUur. Sail. Romam erat nuncidtum. Cic, Messanam 
lit eras dedit. Id. 

Remark 1. The accusative, in like manner, is used after iter with 
sum, haheo, &c. ; as, Iter est mihi Lanuvium. Cic. Ccesdrem iter habere 
Capuam. Id. 

Rem. 2. The preposition to be supplied is in, denoting into, which is 
sometimes expressed ; as, In Ephesum abii. Plant. M, when expressed 
before the name of a town, denotes not into, but to or near ; as, CcEsar ad 
Genevan! 2^errem^ Caes. Cttm e^o ad Heracieam acce^Z^r em. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Instead of the accusative, a dative is sometimes, though rare- 
ly, used; as, Carthagini nuncios mittam, Hor. 

Rem. 4. Domus in both numbers, and rus in the singular, 
are put in the accusative, like names of towns ; as, 

lie domuvi, Go home. Virg. Galli domos ahierant. Liv. Rus ibo. Ter. 

When domus is limited by a genitive, or a possessive adjective pronoun, 
it sometimes takes a preposition : with other adjectives, the preposition is 
generally expressed ; as, JVon intro&o in nostram domum. Plant. Venisse 
in domum Leccas. Cic. Ad earn domum profecti sunt. Id. In domos 
superas scandere cur a fuit. Ovid. 

Domus is sometimes used in tlie accusative after a verbal noun ; as, 
Domum reditionis spe sublatd. Cass. Mens domum eforo reditus. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Before all other names of places in which the motion ends, 
except those of towns, and domus and rus, the preposition is commonly 
used ; as. Ex Asid, transis in Europam. Curt. Te in Epirum venisse 
gaudeo. Cic. But it is sometimes omitted ; as, Inde Sardinian! cum 
classe venit. Cic. Italiam Lavlndque vejiit iitora. Virg. JVarigdre 
5igyptum pergit. Liv. Rapidum vefiiemus Oaxen. Virg. The names of 
nations are used in the same manner ; as, Mode ad Nervios pervemriint 
Caes. JVos ibimu^ Afros. Virg. So insulsis rubri maris naviga7it. Vlin. 

ACCUSATIVE AFTER ADVERBS AND INTERJEC- 
TIONS. 
<^ 238* 1. The adverbs pridie and postridie are often followed 
by the accusative ; as, Pridie eum diem. The day before that day. Cic. 
Pridie Idus. Id. Postridie ludos. Id. Postridie Calendas. Liv. 

18* 



210 SYNTAX. VOCATIVE. 

The accusative, in such examples, depends on ante or j)ost understood. 

For the genitive after pridie and postridie, see § 212, Rem. 4, Note 6. 

The adverb bend is sometimes followed by the accusative in forms of 
drinking health ; as, Propino, bene vos, bene nos, bene te, bend me, bend 
nostram Stephanium. Plant. Bene Messalam. Tibull. 

2. The interjections en, ecce, O, heu, and pro, are sometimes 
followed by the accusative ; as, 

En qiintuoT aras ! ecce duos tibi Daphni ! Behold four altars ! lo, two 
for tiiee, Daphnis ! Virg. Eccum I eccos ! eccilluin ! for ecce eum ! ecce cos ! 
erce'diwm! Plant. preecldrum cMstodem / Cic. Heu me infellcem ! Tei . 
Pro Dciim hominumque fid em ! Cic. 

So also ah, eheu. and hem ; as, .^h me me ! Catull. Eheu me miserumf 
Ter. Hem astutlas .^ Id. 

The accusative is also used in exclamations without an interjection ) 
as. Miseram me I Ter. Homineni gravem et civem egregium ! Cic. 

SUBJECT- ACCUSATIVE. 

§239. The subject of the infinitive mood is put in 
the accusative ; as, 

Moleste Pompeium id ferre constdbat, That Pompey took that ill, was 
evident, Cic. Eos hoc nomine appeUdri fas est. Id. Miror te ad me nihil 
scribercy I wonder that you do not write to me. Cn. Mag. in Cic, Cam- 
pos jubet esse patentes, Virg. 

Remark 1. The subject of the infinitive is omitted when it pre- 
cedes in the genitive or dative case ; as, Est adolescentis major es natu 
vercri, sc. eum. Cic. Doctoris intelligentis est naturd sud duee utentem 
sic instituere. Id. Exp edit bonas esse vobis, sc. vos. Ter. Armdri Vol- 
scorum edice maniplis. Virg. 

Rem. 2. A substantive pronoun is also sometimes omitted before the 
infinitive, when it is the subject of the preceding verb ; as, PollicUvs sum 
suscejJturum {esse), sc. me, I promised (that I) would undertake. Ter. 
Sed reddere posse negdbat, sc. se. Virg. 

Rem. 3. Tlie subject of the infinitive is often omitted, when it is a 
general indefinite word for person or thing ; as. Est aliud iracundum esse^ 
aliiid irdtitm, se. hoininem.. Cic. 

The subject-accusative, like the nominative, is often wanting. See § 209, 
Rem. 3. The subject of the infinitive may be an infinitive or a clause. 
See § 201, IV. 

For the Terbs after which the subject-accusative with the infinitive is 
used, see § 272. For the accusative in the predicate after infinitives neu- 
ter and passive, see § 210, 

VOCATIVE. 

^ 240. The vocative is used, either with or without 
an interjection, in addressing a person or thing. 

The interjections O, heu, and pro, also ah, au, ehe?ii, eheu, 
the, ehodum, eja, hem, heus, hui, io, ohe, and vah, are often 
followed by the vocative ; as, 

O formose puer ! O beautiful boy ! Virg. Heu virgo I Id. Pro sancte 



SYNTAX. — -ABLATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 211 

Jupiter I Cic. Ah vlrgo infelix J Virg. Ileus Syre ! Ter. Ohe libelle ! 
Marl. 

The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive depending upon it 
remains; as, miserce sortis f sc. homines. Lucan. 

Note. The vocative fofms no part of a proposition, but serves to 
designate the person to whom a proposition is addressed. 



ABLATIVE. 

ABLATIVE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

*§)241. Eleven prepositions are followed by the abla- 
tive. 

These are a, ab, or ahs ; absque, coram, cum, de, e or ex, 
palam, jjvcb, pro, sine, tenus ; as. 

Ah illo tempore, From that time. Li v. A scribendo, From writing. Cic. 
Cum exercitu, With the army. Sail. Certis de causis, For certain 
reasons. Cic. Ex fugd, From flight. Id. Palam popido. Liv. Sine 
labor e. Cic. Capulo tenus. Virg. 

For in, sub, super, subter, and clam, with the ablative, see § 235, (2,) &c. 

Remark 1. Tenus is always placed after its case. It sometimes takes 
the genitive, chiefly the genitive plural. See § 221> IIL 

Rem. 2. The adverbs procul and simul are sometimes used with an ab- 
lative, which depends on a preposition understood ; as, Procul viari, sc. a; 
Far from the sea. Liv. Simul nobis habitat, sc. cum. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. Some of the above prepositions, like those which are follow- 
ed by the accusative, are occasionally used without a noun expressed ; as, 
Ciim coram sumus. Cic. Cum fratre an sine. Id. 

Rem. 4. The ablative is often used without a preposition, where, in 
English, a preposition must be supplied. This occurs especially in poetry. 
In some such cases, a preposition may properly be introduced in Latin; 
in others, the idiom of that language does not permit it. 

<§) 242. Many verbs compounded with a, ab, abs, de, e, ex, 
and super, are followed by an ablative depending upon the prep- 
osition ; as, 

Abesse urbe, To be absent from the city. Cic. Ablre sedihus, To depart 

from their habitations. Tac. Ut se maledictis non abstineant. Cic. De- 

trfidunt naves scopulo. They push the ships from the rock. Virg. Navi 

egressus est. Nep. Excedere finibus. Liv. Ccesar prcelio supersedere 

' statuit. Cass. 

Remark 1. The preposition is often repeated, or a different one is 
used ; as, Detrahere de tud famd nunquam cogitdvi. Cic. Ex oculis abi- 
crunt. Liv. Exire a. patrid. Cic. Exire de vitd. Id. 

Rem. 2. These compound verbs are often used without a noun ; but, 
in many cases, it may be supplied by the mind ; as, Equites degressi ad 
pedes, sc. equis. Liv. Ablre ad Deos, sc. vitd. Cic. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, and ex, instead of the 
ablative, are sometimes followed by the dative. See § 224, Rem. 1 and 
2. Some compounds, also, of neuter verbs, occur with the accusative. 
See §233, Rem. 1. 



212 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE ATTER CERTAIN NOUNS, &C, 



ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, 
AND VERBS. 

*55 243. Opus and usus^ signifying need^ are usually 
limited by the ablative ; as, 

Auctoritate Uid nobis opus est, We need your authority. Cic. JVune 
animis opus nunc ipecioie fir mo. Virg. JVaveSj qmbus proconsuli usus nan 
esset; Ships, for which the proconsul had no occasion. Cic. JVwncvirlbus 
usv^, nunc manibus rapidis. Virg. 

Remark 1. Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the ablative of a 
perfect participle ; as, Ita facto et maturato opus esse, That there was 
need of so doing and of hastening. Liv. Usus facto est mihi. Ter. After 
opus, a noun is sometimes expressed with the participle ; as, Opus fuit 
Hirtio convento (Cic.) ; Opus sibi esse domino ejus invento (Liv.) ; — or a 
supine is used ; as, Ita dictu opus est. Ter. 

For the genitive and accusative after opus and usus, see § 211, Rem. 11. 

Rem. 2. Opus and usus, signifying need, are only used with the verb 
sum. Opus is sometimes the subject, and sometimes the predicate, of that 
verb; usus the subject only. Opus is rarely followed by an ablative, ex- 
cept when it is the subject of the verb. The thing needed may, in gene- 
ral, be put either in the nominative or the ablative ; as. Dux nobis opus 
est (Cic), or Duce nobis opus est. The former construction is most 
common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is always used with 
those which denote quantity, as tantum. quantum, plus, &c. ; as, Quod 
non opus est, asse carum est. Cato apud Sen. 

For the ablative of character, quality, &c., limiting a noun, see §211, 
Rem. 6. 

<5) 244. Dignus, indignus, contentus, prceditus, and fre- 
tits, are followed by the ablative ; as, 

Dignus laude, Worthy of praise. Hor. Vox populi majestate indigna, 
A speech unworthy of the dignity of the people. Cses. Bestice eo con- 
tentcB non qucerunt amplius. Cic. Homo scelere prcedUus. Id. Plerique 
ingenio freti. Id. 

Remj^rk 1. The adverb dignh, like dignus, takes the ablative after it ', 
as, Peccat uter nostriim cruce digniiis. Hor. 

Rem. 2. Dignus and indignus are sometimes followed by the genitive ; 
as, Suscipe cogitationem dlgnissimam tuce virtu tis. Cic. Indignus avorum. 
Virg. 

Instead of an ablative, they often take an infinitive, or a subjunctive 
clause, with qui or ut ; as, Erat dignus amari. Virg. Dignus qui imperet. 
Cic. Non sum dignus, ut figam palum in parietem. Plant. 

<§) 245. I. Utor, fruor, fangor, potior, vescor, and dig- 
nor, are followed by the ablative ; as, 

His vocibus u^a est, She used these words. Virg. Frui voluptate, To 
enjoy pleasure. Cic. Fizno-Uwr officio, He performs his duty. Id. Oppido 
potUi sunt. Liv. Vescitur aura. Virg. Me dignor honore. Id. Homines 
nonore dignantur . Cic . 

So the compounds abutor, and rarely deutor, perfruor, defungor, and 
perfungor. 

Remark 1. The above verbs, except dignor, instead of an ablative, 



SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &C. 213 

sometimes take an accusative ; as, Quam rem medici utuntur. Varr. In- 
genium/rwi. Ter. Datdmes militdre munus fungens . Nep. Gentem alt- 
quavi urbem nostram potituram puiem. Cic. Sacras lauros vescar. Tibull. 
Potior is, also, found with the genitive. (See § 220, 4.) Dignor is used 
both as active and passive. 

II. LcBtor^ gaudeo, glorior^ jacto, nitor, sto,JidOj conftdo^ 
mutOy misceOy tpulor^ vivo, assuesco, and consto (to consist of), 
are often followed by the ablative without a preposition ; as, 

LcBtor tud dignitate, I rejoice in your dignity. Cic. Gaude tuo bono. Id. 
Sud wicioi'i^x gloridri. Caes. Jactat sxvj^T^liciolevando. Cic. JViii aequitate. 
Id. Censoris opinione standum non putdvit. Id. Fidere cursu. Ovid. 
Corporis firmitate confidere. Cic. Uvam mutat strigili. Hor. Genus 
pugncB quo assueverani. Liv. Quidquid auro et argento constdret. Suet. 

Remark 1. Gaudeo is sometimes followed by the accusative ; as, Ga- 
vlsos homines suum dolorem. Cic. See § 232, (2.) Fido, confido, and 
assuesco, often take the dative. See § 223, Rem. 2, 

Rem. 2. When a preposition is expressed after the above verbs, Icetor 
and gaudeo usually take de ; glorior and jacto, de or in ; nitor, sto, Jido 
and confldo, in; assuesco, in or ad^misceo, cum; and consto, ex. 

III, The ablative without a preposition is used after sum, to 
denote the situation or circumstances of the subject of the 
verb ; as, 

Tamen magno timore sum, Yet I am in great fear. Cic. Quanto fuerim 
dolore meministi. Id. Maximo honore Servius Tullius erat, Liv. Ut 
meliore simus loco, ne optandum quidem est. Cic. 

But the preposition in is often used before such ablatives, especially if 
an adjective or pronoun is not joined with them ; as, Sum in expectatione 
omnium rerum. Cic. Etsi erdmus in magnd spe. Id. 

<§> 246. Perfect participles denoting origin are often 
followed by the ablative of the source^ without a prepo- 
sition. 

Such are natus, progndtus, satus, credtus, cretus, editus, genitus. generd- 
tus^ ortus ; to which may be added oriundus. 

Thus, JVate ded ! O son of a goddess ! Virg. Tantdlo progndtus, De- 
scended from Tantalus. Cic. <Saiw5JYerel<Ze, Sprung from a Nereid. Ovid. 
Credtus rege. Id. Alcanore creti. Virg. Edite regihus. Hor. Diis gen- 
ite. Virg. ^rgollco generdtus Memone. Ovid. Ortus nullis majoribus. 
Hor. Ccelesti semine oriundi. Lucr. 

Remark 1. The preposition is also rarely omitted after nascor ; as, Ut 
patre certo nascerere. Cic. So, Fortes creantur fortibus. Hor. 

Rem. 2. The prepositions a or ab, de, e or ex, are often expressed after 
these participles, especially in prose. 



ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &c. 

<5> 247. Nouns denoting the cause, manner, means, 
and instrument, after adjectives and verbs, are put in the 
ablative without a preposition ; as. 



214 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE; &C. 

Snimus cBger avaritia, A mind diseased through avarice. Sail. Poller e 
metu, To be pale through fear. Ovid. Quod saevitia temporis non capi 

poterat. Sail.- Omnibus modis miser sum, I am every way miserable. Ter. 

Silentio audltus est, He was heard in silence. Cic. Lento gradu procedit. 

Val. Max. ^mtco5 observantieij rem parsimonia retinuit ; He retained 

his friends by attention, his property by frugality. Cic. Auro osixoque 
decori. Virg. Vi morbi consumptus es. Cic. JEgrescit medendo. Virg. 

Trabs saucia securi, A tree cut with the axe. Ovid. Ccbsus est virgis, 

He was beaten with rods. Cic. Lanidbant dentibus artus. Virg. 

Remark 1. When the cause is a voluntary agent, it is put in the ac- 
cusative with the preposition ob. propter^ or per ; as, Kon est cequum me 
propter vos decipi. Ter. These prepositions, and a or ab, de, e or ex, and 
pr^j are also sometimes used when the cause is not a voluntary agent ; as, 
Ob adulterium c«^j. Virg. JVec loqui prdd uiceToie potuit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. After active verbs, the causeis seldom expressed by the simple 
ablative, but either by a preposition, or by the ablatives causd^ grati-d. ifec, 
with a genitive; as, Si hoc honoris mei causa susceperis. Cic. With 
causd, &c., the adjective pronoun is commonly used, for the corresponding 
substantive pronoun; as, Te abesse mea causa, moleste fero. Cic. Some- 
times the ablative with ductus, motus, captus, &c., is used ; as, Mihi benev- 
olentia ductus trihuebat omnia. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The manner is often expressed with cum, especially when an 
adjective is joined with it ; as, Quum videret orator es cum severitate 
audiri. Cic. Magno cum metu dicer e incipio. Id. Sometimes also with 
e or ex ; as, Ex industrid. On purpose. Liv. Ex integro, Anew. Quinct. 

Rem. 4. The means is often expressed by per with an accusative ; as, 
Quod per scelus adeptus est. Cic. When it is a voluntary agent, it can 
only be so expressed, or by the ablative opera with a genitive or possessive 
pronoun; as. Per praeconem vendere aliquid. Cic. Opera eorum effectum 
est. Just. JYon mea opera evenit. Ter. Yet persons are sometimes con- 
sidered as involuntary agents, and as such expressed by the ablative with- 
out a preposition ; as. Servos, quibus silvas publicas depopvldtus erat. Cic. 

Rem. 5. The instrument is rarely used with a preposition. The poets, 
however, sometimes prefix to it a or ah, and even sub, and sometimes 
other prepositions; as, Trajectus ab ense. Ovid. Exercere solum sub 
vomere. Virg. Cum, with the instrument, is seldom used except by infe- 
rior writers; as, Cum voce maxima conclamdre. Gell. 

<§ 248. I. The voluntary agent of an active verb in 
the passive voice is put in the ablative with a or ab ; as, 

(In the active voice,) Clodius me diligit, Clodius loves me (Cic.) ; (in 
the passive,) A Clodio diligor, I am loved by Clodius. Lauddtur ab his, 
culpdtur ab illis. Hor. 

Remark 1. The general word for persons, after verbs in the passive 
voice, is often understood ; as, Probltas lauddtur, sc. ab hominibus. Juv. 
So after the passive of neuter verbs ; as, Discurritur. Virg. Toto certd- 
tum est corpore regni. Id. 

The agent is likewise often understood, when it is the same as the sub- 
ject of the verb, and the expression is equivalent to the active voice with 
a reflexive pronoun, or to the middle voice in Greek ; as, Cum omnes in 
omni genere scelerum volutentur, sc. a se. Cic. 

Rem. 2. Neuter verbs, also, are often followed by an abla- 
tive of the voluntary agent with a or ab ; as^ 



SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, &C. 2l5 

M. Marcellus periit ab Annibale, M; Marcellus was killed by Hannibal. 
Plin. JVe vir ab hoste cadat. Ovid. 

Rem. 3. The preposition is sometimes omitted; SiS^ JVec con juge capites. 
Ovid. Colltur linlgerd turba. Id. 

For the dative of the agent after the passive voice, and participles in 
dus, see § 225, II. and HI. 

II. The involuntary agent of an active verb in the passive voice, is put 
in the ablative without a preposition, as the cause, means, or instrument; 
as (in the active voice). Terror conficit omnia (Lucan.) ; — ^(in the passive), 
Maximo dolore conjicior. Cic. Frangi cupiditate. Id. 

But the involuntary agent is sometimes considered as voluntary, and 
takes a or ah ; as, A voluptatibus deseri. Cic. A natur^ datum homlni 
vivendi curriculum. Id. 

<§) 249. I. A noun denoting that with which the 
action of a verb is performed, though not the instrument, 
is put in the ablative w^ithout a preposition. 

Remark 1. This construction is used with verbs signifying 
to fill, to furnish, to load, to array, to adorn, to enrich, and 
many others of various significations ; as, 

Terrore impletur Africa, Africa is filled with terror. Sil. Instruxere 
epulis mensas, They furnished the tables with food. Ovid. Ut ejus arvt- 
mum his opinionibus imbuas, That you should imbue his mind with these 
sentiments. Cic. JVaves oner ant auro. They load the ships with gold. 
Virg. Cumulat altaria donis, He heaps the altars with gifts. Id. Terra 
se gramme vcstit, The earth clothes itself with grass. Id. Mollihus ornd- 
bat cornua sertis. Id. Me tanto honore honestas. Plant. Equis Africam 
locupletdvit. Colum. Studium tuum nulla me nova voluptate affecit. Cic. 
Terr am nox obruit umbris. Lucr. 

Rem. 2. Several verbs, denoting to fill, instead of the ablative, some- 
times take a genitive. See § 220, 3. 

II. A noun denoting that in accordance with which any 
thing is, or is done, is often put in the ablative without a 
preposition ; as, 

Nostra more, According to our custom. Cic. Instituto suo Ccesar 
capias suas eduxit ; Cassar, according to his practice, led out his forces. 
Caes. Id factum consilio meo, Ter. Pacem fecit his conditionibus. Nep. 

The prepositions de, ex, and pro, are often expressed with such nouns. 

III. The ablative denoting accompaniment ^ is usually joined 
with cu7n; as, 

Vagamur egentes cum conjugibus et liberis ; Needy, we wander with 
our wives and children. Cic. ScBpe admirdri soleo cum hoc C. Laelio. 
Cic. Julium cum his ad te Uteris misi. Id. Ingressus est cum gladio. 
Id. But cum is sometimes omitted, especially before words denoting 
military forces ; as, M castra Ccesdris omnibus copiis contenderunt. Caes. 
Inde toto exercitu profectus. Liv. 

<§> 250. A noun, adjective, or verb, may be followed 
by the ablative, denoting in what respect their signification 
is taken ; as, 



216 SYNTAX.- — ^iVBI^ATIYE OF CAUSE, &€. 

Pietdte filius, consiliis parens ; In affection a son, in counsel a parent, 
Cic. Reges nomine magis quam imperio, Kings in name rather than in 

authority. Nep. Oppidum nomine Bibr ax. Cobs. Jureperitus, Skilled 

in law. Cic. Anxius ammo, Anxious in mind. Tac. Pedibus ceger, Lame 
in his feet. Sail. Criiie ruber, niger ore. Mart. Fronte Icetus. Tac. 

Major natu. Cic. Maximus natu. Liv. Ammo angi, To be troubled in 

mind. Cic. Contremisco totd mente et omnibus ar tubus, I am agitated in 
vcij whole mind and in every limb. Id. Captvs mente, Affected in mind. 
i. e. deprived of reason. Id. Altero oculo capitur. Liv. Ingenii laude 
floruit. Cic. Poller e nobilitdte. Tac. Jinimoque et corpbre torpet. Hor. 

Remark 1, To this principle may be referred the following 
rules : — 

(1.) Adjectives of plenty or want are sometimes limited by 
the ablative ; as, 

Domus plena servis, A house full of servants. Juv. Dives agris, Rich 

in land. Hor. Ferax sceculum bonis ariibus. Plin. Inops verbis, 

Deficient in words. Cic. Orba fratribus, Destitute of brothers. Ovid. 
Viduum arboribus solum. Colum. 

(2.) Verbs signifying to abound, and to be destitute, are fol- 
lowed by the ablative ; as, 

Scatentem belluis pontumj The sea abounding in monsters. Hor. Urbs 
redundat militibus, The city is full of soldiers. Auct. ad Her. Villa 

abundat porco , hcsdo, agno, gallind, lacte, caseo, melle. Cic. Virum qui 

pecunia egeat, A man who is in want of money. Id. Carere culpd, To 
be free from fault. Id. Mea adolescentia indiget illorum bond existima- 
tione. Id. Abundat audacia, consilio et ratione deficitur. Id. 

To this rule belong abundo, exubero, redundo, scateo, affluo, circumfluOj 
diffluo, superfluo ; — careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, dejicior, destituor, &c. 

Rem. 2. The genitive is of\en used to denote in what respect, afler 
adjectives and verbs ; (see § § 213 and 220 ;) sometimes, also, the accu- 
sative. See § 234, II. 

Rem. 3. The ablative denoting in respect to, or concerning, is used 
afler /acio and sum, without a preposition ; as, Quid hoc homine facialis ? 
What can you do with this man.? Cic. JVcscit quid facial a.UTo. Plant, 
Metum ceperunt quidnam sefuturum esset. Liv. In this construction, the 
preposition de soems to be understood, and is sometimes expressed ; as, 
Quid de Tulliola medfiet. Cic. 

^251. A noun denoting that of which any thing is 
deprived, or from which it is separated, is often put in the 
ablative without a preposition. 

This construction occurs after verbs signifying to deprive, to 
free, to debar, to drive away, to remove, and others of similar 
meaning. Thus, 

JYudantur arbores foliis, The trees are stripped of leaves. Plin. Hoc me 
libera metu. Free me from this fear. Ter. Tune eam philosophiam 
sequere, qucB spoliat nos }\idicio, privat approbatione, orto sensibus.? Cic. 
Solvit se Teucria luctu. Virg. Te illis sedibus arcebit. Cic. Q. Varium 
pellere possessionibus conatus est. Id. Quod M. Catonem, tribunatu tuo 
removisses. Id. Me leves chori secernunt populo. Hor. 



SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF PRICE AND TIME. 217 

To this rule belong fraudo, nudo, orbo, privo, spolio ; — arceOy expedlo, 
intercludoj laxo, levo, libero, moveo, removeo, pello, prohibeo, &,c. 

Remark 1. Most of the above verbs are more or less frequently fol- 
lowed by a, abj de, e, or ex ; as, Arcem ab incendio liberdvlt. Cic. Solvere 
belluam ex catenis. Auct. ad Her. Remove te a suspicione. Cic. 

For arceo, &c., with the dative, see § 224, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 2. The active verbs induo, exuo, dona, imp ertio, adspergo, insper- 
gOy intercludo. clrcumdo, prohibeo, instead of an ablative of the thing with 
an accusative of the person, sometimes take an accusative of the thing. 
and a dative of the person ; as, Unam (vestem) juveni induit, He puts one 
upon the youth. Virg. Dondre munera civibus, To present gifts to the 
citizens. Cic. 

Interdlco is sometimes used with a dative of the person and an ablative 
of the thing ; as, Quibus cam aquci et igni inter dixissent. Caes. 

Abdlco takes sometimes an ablative, and sometimes an accusative of the 
thing renounced ; as, Mdicdre se magistratu. Cic. Mdicare magistra- 
tum. Sail. 

ABLATIVE OF PRICE. 

<§> 252. The price of a thing is put in the ablative, 
except when expressed by the adjectives ianti, quanti, 
plurisj minoris ; as, 

Ciim. te trecentis talentis regi Cotto vendidisses, When you had sold 
yourself to king Cottus for three hundred talents. Cic. Vendidlt hie 
auro patriam, This one sold his country for gold. Virg. Cibus uno asse 
vendlis. Plin. Constitlt quadringentis millibus. Varr. Denis in diem 
assibus animam et corpus (milUum) cestimdri. Tac. Vendo meum noii 
pluris quam ceteri,fortasse etiam minoris. Cic. 

Remark 1. Tantidem, quanticunque, quantiquanti, and quantlvis, com- 
pounds of tanti and quanti, are also put in the genitive ; as, Tantldem 

frumentum emerunt quantidem Cic. Majoris also is thus used in 

Phaedrus ; Multd majoris aldpce mecum veneunt. 

Rem. 2. When joined with a noun, tantij quanti, &.C., are put in the 
ablative ; as, Quam tanto pretio mercdtus est. Cic. Cum pretio minOrc 
redimendi captives copia jieret. Liv. Tanto, quanta, and plure, are some- 
times, though rarely, found without a noun; as, Plure venit. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a noun ; 
as, magno, permagno, parvo, paululo, tantulo, minimo, plurimo, vili, n'lmio. 
These adjectives refer to some noun understood, as pretio, (cre, and the 
like, which are sometimes expressed ; as, Parvo pretio ea vendidisse. Cic. 

Rem. 4. With valeo an accusative is sometimes used; as, Denarii 
dicti, qudd denos (Bris valebant. Varr. 



ABLATIVE OF TIME. 

^ 253. A noun denoting the time at or within which 
any thing is said to be, or to be done, is put in the abla- 
tive without a preposition ; as, 

Die quinto decessit. He died on the fifth day. Nep. Hoc tempore, At 
this time. Cic. Tertid vigilia eruptionem fecerunt. They made a sally at 

A»7 



218 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF PLACE, 

the third watch. Cses. Ut hieme naviges^ That you should sail in the 
winter. Cic. His ipsis diebus hostem persequi. Cic. Proximo triennio 
omnes gentes subegit. Nep. Vel pace Tel bello clarum fieri licet. Sail. 
Ludis mane servum quidam egerat, On the day of the games.... Liv. So 
Latinis, gladiatorihus, comitiis^ denote the time of the Latin festivals, the 
gladiatorial shows, &c. 

Remark 1. When a precise time is marked by its distance before or 
after another fixed time, it may be expressed by ante or post with either 
the accusative or the ablative ; as. Miquot ante annos. Suet. Paucis ante 
diehus. Liv. Paucos post dies. Cic. Multis annis post Decemviros. Id. 

Sometimes quam and a verb are added to post and ante with either the 
accusative or the ablative ; as. Ante paucos qukm perlret menses. Suet. 
PoMcis post diehus quam Lucd, discesserat. Cie. Post is sometimes omitted 
before quam; as, Die vigesivid quam credtus erat. Liv. 

Instead of postquanif ex quo or quum, or a relative agreeing with the pre- 
ceding ablative, may be used > as, Octo diehus, quibus has liter as daham, 
Eight da3^s from the date of these letters. Cic. Mors Roscii, quatriduo 
quo is occlsus est, Chrysogono nuntidtur. Id. 

Rem. 2. Precise past time is often denoted by ahhinc with the accusa- 
tive or ablative ; as, QiicBstor fuisti abhinc annos quatuordecim. Cic. Co- 
mitiis jam abhinc tiiginta diebus hahitis. Id. 

Rem. 3. The time at which any thing is done, is sometimes expressed 
by the neuter accusative id, with a genitive ; as, Venit id temporis. Cic. 
So with a preposition ; Ad id diei. Gell. See § 212, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 4. The time at or within which any thing is done, is sometimes 
expressed by in or de, with the ablative ; as, In his diebus. Plant. In tali 
tempore. Liv. De tertid vigilia ad hostes contendit. Cses. Surgunt de 
nocte latrones. Hor. So with sub ; Sub ipsd die. Plin. 

The time within which any thing occurs, is also sometimes expressed 
by intra with the accusative ; as, Diinidiam partem natiomtin subegit intra 
viginti dies. Plant. Intra decimum diem, quam Pheras venerat ; Within 
ten days after.... Liv. 

For the ablative denoting duration of time, see § 236. 



ABLATIVE OF PLACE. 

§ 254. The name of a town in which any thing is 
said to be, or to be done, if of the third declension or 
plural number, is put in the ablative without a preposi- 
tion; as, 

Alexander Babylone est mortuus, Alexander died at Babylon. Cic. 
Thebis nvtritus an Argis, Whether brought up at Thebes or at Argos. 
Hor. 

Remark 1 . The ablative rure, or more commonly ruri, is used to de- 
note in the country ; as, Pater filium ruri hahitdre jussit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The preposition in is sometimes expressed with names of 
towns ; as, In Philippis quidam nuncidvit. Suet. 

Names of towns of the first and second declension, and singular num- 
ber, and also domus and humus, are in like manner sometimes put in the 
ablative. See § 221. 

Rem. 3. Before the names of countries and of all other places in which 
any thing is said to be done, except those of towns, and domus and rus, 



SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 219 

the preposition in with the ablative is commonly used ; as, Jlio hoc fieri 
in Groecii.1. Plaut. Lucus in urhefuit. Virg. 

But the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, Millies stativis castris 
h'tbebat. Sail. Magnis in laudihus fuit totd Graeci^i. Nep. InsidicB ieiT'd. 
maiTique factcn sunt. Cic. JYavUa puppe sedens. Ovid. Ibam forte viA 
sacra. Hor. Urbe totd. Cic. 

For names of countries in the genitive, see § 221, Rem. 1. 

^ 255. After verbs expressing or implying motion, 
the name of a town vi^hence the motion proceeds, is put in 
the ablative, without a preposition ; as, 

Brundisio profecti sumus, We departed from Brundisium. Cic. Corintho 
arcessivit colonos, He sent for colonists from Corinth. Nep. 

Remark 1. The ablatives domo, Jiwno, and rure or ?-///•/, are 
used, like names of towns, to denote the place whence motion 
proceeds ; as, 

Domo profectus, Having set out from home. Nep. Surgit hniwo juven's^ 
The youth rises from the ground. Ovid. Rure hue advenlt. Ter. Si ruri 
veniet. Id. Virgil uses domus with unde ; as, Qui genus? undc domo? 
With an adjective, rwre, and not ruri, must be used. 

Rem. 2. With names of towns, and domus, and humus, ah or ex is 
sometimes used; as, Ab Alexandria profectus. Cic. Ex domo. Id. Ab 
humo. Virg. 

Rem. 3. With other names of places ^vhence motion proceeds, ab or 
ex is commonly expressed ; as. Ex Asia transis in Europam. Curt. Ex 
castris prqficiscuntur . Coss. 

But the preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, Literal. jVIacedoniA alldtx. 
Liv. Classis Cypro advenit. Curt. Cesslssent loco Liv. lie sacris, 
proper ate sacris, laurumque Cii^WYi^ponite. Ovid. Finibus omnes prosiluere 
suis. Virg. Advolvunt ingentes montibus ornos. Id. This omission of 
the preposition is most common in the poets. 



ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 

*§^ Zoiim When two objects are compared by means of the compar- 
ative degree, a conjunction, as qua,m, atque, &c., is sometimes expressed, 
and sometimes omitted. 

The comparative degree is followed by the ablative, 
u^hen qumn is omitted ; as, 

JVihil est virtute formosius, Nothing is more beautiful than virtue. Cic. 
Quis C. Laslio condor ? Who is more courteous than C. Laslius ? Id. 

Remark 1. An object which is compared with the subject 
of a proposition by means of the comparative degree, is usually 
put in the ablative without qudm ; as, 

Sidere pulchrior ille est, tu lemor cortice. Hor. Quid magis est durum 
saxo, quid mollius unda ? Ovid. Hoc nemo fuit minus ineptus. Ter. M- 
hdnum, Maecenas, slve Falernum te magis appositis delectat. Hor. 

Rem. 2. An object compared with a person or thing addressed, is also 
put in the ablative v/ithout quam ; as, fons Bandzisice splendidior vitro! 
Hor. 



220 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. 

Rem. 3. Quam is sometimes used when one of the objects compared 
is the subject of a proposition, and then both are in the same case, either 
nominative or accusative ; as, Oratio quam habitus fuit miserabilior. Cic. 
^^ffirmo nullam esse laudem ampliorem quam eam. Id. 

Rem. 4. If neither of the objects compared is the subject of a sentence 
or a person addressed, quam is commonly used, and the object which fol- 
lows it is put in the nominative with sum, and sometimes in the accusa- 
tive, if the other object is in the accusative ) as, Jion opinor negaturum 
esse te, homini non gratlosori, quam Cn. Calidius est, argentum reddidisse. 
Cic. Ego hominem callidiorcm vidi neminem quam Phormionem. Ter. 

The following example illustrates both the preceding constructions : — 
Ut tihi multo majori, quam Africanus fuit, tamen (ine) non multd minorem 
quajii Lslium adjunctum esse patidre. Cic. 

Rem. 5. But when the former object of comparison is in the accusa- 
tive, though not the subject of the verb, the latter, if a relative pronoun, 
is put in the ablative without quam ; as, Mtdlo, quo graviorem inimicum 
non habui, sororem dedit ; He gave his sister to Attains, than whom, &c. 
Curt. 

This construction is often found with other pronouns, and sometimes 
with a noun ; as. Hoc nihil gratiiis facer e potes. Cic. Causam enim sus- 
cepisti antiquiorem memoria tua,. Id. Exegi monumentum aere perennius. 
Hor. Majora virlbus audes. Virg. JVullam sacrd vite prius severis arbo- 
rem. Hor. 

Rem. 6. Plus, minus, and amplius, are often used without 
quam, and yet are commonly followed by the same case as if it 
were expressed ; as, 

Hostium plus quinque millia c(Bsi eo die^ More than five thousand of the 
enemy were slain that day. Liv. Ferre plus dimididti mensis cibaria. 
Cic. cA'oTi amplius quingentos cives desiderdvit. Caes. Sedecim non am- 
plius legionibus defensum imperium est. Liv. Madefactum iri minus tri- 
ginta diebus Grceciam sanguine. Cic. The ablatives in the last two exam- 
ples do not depend upon the comparatives, but may be referred to § 236. 

Before the dative and vocative, quam must be expressed after these 
words. 

The ablative is sometimes used with these as with other comparatives ; 
as, Dies iriginta aut plus eo in navi fui. Ter. Triennio amplius. Cic. 

Rem. 7. Quam is in like manner sometimes omitted, without a change 
of case, after major, minor, and some other comparatives ; as, Obsldes ne 
minor es octonum denum annorum neu majores quinum quadragenum,.... of 
not less than eighteen, nor more than forty-five years of age. Liv. Ex 
urbdno exercitu, qui minores quinque el triginta annis erant, in naves impos- 
iti sunt. The genitive and ablative, in these and similar examples, is to be 
referred to § 211, Rem. 6. Longius ab urbe mille passuum. Liv. Annos 
vatus magis quadraginta. Cic. 

Rem. 8. When the second member of a comparison is an infinitive or 
clause, quam is always expressed ', as, JVihil est in dicendo majus quam ut 
faveat oratori auditor. Cic. 

Rem. 9. Certain nouns, participles, and adjectives, — as ojnnione, spe, 
expectatione, fide, — dicto, solito, — cequo, credibili, 3,ndjusto, — are used in the 
ablative after comparatives; as, Opinione celeriiis venturus esse dicitur.... 
sooner than is expected. Cass. Dicto citiiis tumida cequora placat. Virg. 
Injurias gravius aequo habere. Sail. 

These ablatives supply the place of a clause : thus, gravius ceqiLO is 



SYNTAX. ABLATIVE AFTER COMPARATIVES. '221 

equivalent to gravius quam quod cBquum est. They are often omitted ; as, 
Liberlus vivebat, sc. mquo. Nep. In such cases, the comparative may be 
translated by the positive degree, with too or rather , as in the above ex- 
ample — '' He lived too freely," or '' rather freely." So tristior, sc. solito, 
rather sad. 

Rem. 10. With inferior^ the dative is sometimes used, instead of the 
ablative ; as, Vir nuUd arte cuiquam inferior. Sail. The ablative is also 
found, but usually infcHor is followed by quam. 

Rem. 11. Qwa??i pro is used after comparatives, to express dispropor- 
tion ; as, Pralium atrocius quam pro numero pugnantium, The battle was 
more severe than was to be expected, considering the number of the com- 
batants. Liv. 

Rem. 12. When two different qualities of the same object are compar- 
ed, both the adjectives w^hich express them are put in the positive degree 
with magis quam.^ or in the comparative connected by quam ; as, Perfec- 
tam artem juris civilis habebitis, magis magnam atque uberem, quavi diffi- 
cTlem atque obscQram. Cic. Triumphus clarior quam gratior, A triumph 
more famous than acceptable. Liv. 

Rem. 13. Magis is sometimes expressed with a comparative ; as, Quis 
inagis queat esse beatior ? Virg. 

So also the prepositions pi-oi, ante, prceter, and supra, are sometimes used 
with a comparative ; as, Unus prae ceteris fortior exsurgit. Apul. Scelere 
ante aiios immanior omnes. Virg. They also occur with a superlative ; 
as, Ante alios carissimus. Nep. Yet these prepositions denote comparison 
with a positive, and therefore seem redundant in such examples. See 
§127. 

Rem. 14. Alius may be construed like comparatives, and is sometimes, 
though rarely, followed by the ablative ; as, Neve putes alium sapiente 
hondque bedtum. Hor. 

Rem. 15. Ac and atque are sometimes used after the comparative de- 
gree, like quam; as, Arctiits atque hedera procera adstringitur ilex. Hor 

Rem. 16. The degree of difference between objects com- 
pared is expressed by the ablative. 

(1.) Absolute difference is usually denoted by nouns; as, Minor uno 
mense, Younger by one month. Hor. Sesquipede qud,m tu longior. Plaut. 
Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Caes. T>\midiio minoris constdbit. 
Cic. Quam molestum est uno digito plus habere .'....to exceed by a finger, 
to have six fingers. Cic. Superat capite et cervicibus altis. Virg. 

(2,) Relative difference is denoted by neuter adjectives of quantity, and 
pronouns, in the singular number. Such are tanto, quanta, quo, eo, hoc, 
m^ulto, parvo, paulo, nimio, aliqvxinto, altera tanto (twice as much) ; as, 
Quanto sumtts superior es, tanto nos submissius gerdmus ; The more emi- 
nent we are, the more humbly let us conduct ourselves. Cic. Eo gravior 
est dolor, quo culpa est major. Cic. Quo difficilius, hoc prcBclarius. Id. 
Iter multo facilius. Caes. Parvo brevius. Plin. Eo magis. Cic. Eo 
minus. Id, Via altero isinto longior. Nep. Multo id maximum fuit . Liv. 
Relative difference is also expressed by the phrase muUis partibus ; as, 
Numero multis partlbiis esset inferior, Caes. 

Note. The accusatives tantum, quantum, and aliquantum, are some- 
times used instead of the corresponding ablatives ; as, Aliquantum est ad 
rem avidior. Ter. So the adverb longe ; as, Longh nohilis^mus. Caes. 
19* 



222 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

<§j 257. A noun and a participle are put in the abla- 
tive, called absolute, to denote the time, cause, or concom- 
itant of an action, or the condition on which it depends ; 
as, 

Pythagoras, Tarquinio Superbo regnante, in Italiam venit ; Tarquinius 
Superbiis reigning, Pythagcras came into Italy. Cic. Lupus, stimulante 
fanie, captat ovlle ; Hanger inciting, the wolf seeks the fold. Ovid. Hac 
oratione habita, concilium dimlslt. Csbs. Galli, re cognita, ohsidioncm 
reliiiquunt. Id. Vivtuie exeepVd, nihil (nnlcitid praistabilius putetls. Cic. ^ 

Remark 1. This construction is an abridged form of expression^ 
equivalent to a dependent clause introduced by ciim, or some other con- 
junction. Thus, for Tarquinio regnante, the expression dum Tarquinius 
rcgnabat might be used ; for hac oratione habitd, ciim hanc orationem ha- 
huisset, or cum hcBc oratio habita esset, — concilium dimisit. The ablative 
absolute may always be resolved into a proposition, by making the noun 
or pronoun the subject, and the participle the predicate. 

Rem. 2. This construction is common only with present and perfect 
participles. Instances of its use with participles in tus and dus are com- 
paratively rare ; as, Cagsare venture, Phosphore, redde diem. Mart. Ir- 
rupturis tarn infestis nationibas. Liv. Quis est enim, qui, nullis officii 
praeceptis tradendis, philosophum se audeat dicer e. Cic. 

Rem. 3. A noun is put in the ablative absolute, only when 
it denotes a different person or thing from any in the leading 
clause. 

Yet a few examples occur of a deviation from this principle ; a substan- 
tive pronoun being sometimes put in the ablative absolute, though refer- 
ring to the subject, or some other word in the leading clause ; as, Se 
audiente, scrihit Thucydides. Cic. Legio ex castris Varronis, adstante et 
inspectante ipso, signa su^tulit. Cses. Me duce, ad hunc rotifinem, me 
milite, veni. Ovid. Lcetos fecit, se con^ule,f astos. Lucan. 

Rem. 4. The ablative absolute serves to mark the time of an action, by 
reference to that of another action. If the present participle is used, the 
time of the action expressed by the principal verb, is the same as that of 
the participle. If the perfect is used, it denotes an action prior to that 
expressed by the principal verb. 

Thus in the preceding examples — Pythagoras, Tarquinio Superbo reg- 
nante, in Italiam venit ; Pythagoras came into Italy during the reign of 
Tarquinius Supeibus. Galli, re cognltd, obsidionem relinquunt ; The 
Gauls, having learned the fact, abandon the siege. 

Rem. 5. The construction of the ablative absolute with the perfect 
passive participle, arises frequently from the want of a participle of that 
tense in the active voice. Thus, for " Caesar, having sent forward the 
cavalry, was following with all his forces," we find, " Ccesar, equitatu 
pra:misso, subsequcbdtur omnibus copiis ^ 

As the perfect participle in Latin may be used for both the perfect active 
and perfect passive participles in English, its meaning can, in many in- 
stances, be determined only by the connection, the agent vdth a or ab not 
being expressed after this participle, as it usually is after the passive voice. 



SYNTAX.— CONNECTION OF TENSES. 223 

Thus, CfBsar, his dictis, concilium dimisit, might be rendered, " Cresar, 
having said this, or this having been said (by some other person), dismissed 
the assembly." 

As the perfect participles of deponent verbs Correspond to perfect 
active participles in English, no such necessity exists for the use of the 
ablative absolute with them ; as, Ccesar, hasc locutus, concilium dimlsit. 
in the following example, both constructions are united : [tdque.....agros 
ilcmorum depopulati, omnibus vicis, (Bdificiisque incensis. Caes. 

Rem. 6. The perfect participles of neuter deponent verbs, and some 
also of active deponents, which admit of both an active and passive sense, 
are used in the ablative absolute ; as, Ortd, luce. Ca?s. Vel extincto vel 
elapso animo, nullum r^sidere sensum. Cic. Tarn, multis gloriam ejus 
adeptis. Plin. Literas ad exercitus, tanquam adepto principatu, misit. Tac. 

Rem. 7, As the verb sum has no present participle, two 
nouns, or a noun and an adjective, which might be the subject 
and predicate of a dependent clause, are put in the ablative ab- 
solute without a participle ; as, 

<^uid, adolescentulo duce, ejfflcere possent ? What could they <io, a 3^outh 
(being) their leader? Caes. Me suasore atque impulsore, hoc factum, 
JPlaut. ^^nnibdle vivo. ^ep. Invltd Minei'vd, Hot. With names of office, 
the ablative absolute often denotes the time of an event ; as, Romam venit 
Mario consule, He came to Rome in the consulship of Marius. Cic. 

Rem. 8. A clause sometimes supplies the place of the noun ; as, Man- 
dum comperto quam in regionem \renisset rex. Liv. Aadito venisse nun- 
cium. Tac. Ydle dicto. Ovid. Haud cuiqvum dubio (\VLUi\iosti\xxa es&eni, 
Liv. Juxta periculoso vera an ficta promeret. Tac. 

Rem. 9. The noun is, in some instances, wanting ; as, In amnis trans- 
gressu, multum certato, Bardesdnes vicit. Tac. Di^cilis mihi ratio, cut, 
errato, nulla venia^ recte facto, exigua laus proponiticr. Cic. Sereno per 
latum diem. Liv. 
^ This use of certato and errato corresponds to the impersonal construc- 
tion of the passive voice of neuter verbs, while facto and sereno may be 
referred to some general word understood. 

Rem. 10. The ablative is sometimes connected to the preceding clause 
by a conjunction ; as, Ccesar^ quanquam obsidione Massilice retardante, 
hrevi tamen omnia subtgit. Suet. Decemviri non ante, quara perlatis leg! 
bus, deposituros imperium esse aiebant. Liv. 



CONNECTION OF TENSES. 

§ 258. Tenses may be divided, in regard to their con- 
nection, into two classes. Those which belong to the same 
class are called siT)iilar ; those which belong to different classes 
are called dissimilar. 

Of the first class are the present, the perfect definite, and the futures, 
with the periphrastic forms in sim and fuerim. Of the second class are 
the imperfect, the perfect indefinite, and the pluperfect, with the periphrastic 
forms in essem and fuissem. 

I Similar tenses only can, in general, be made to depend on 



224 SYN1:AX*— ^CONNECTION OF TENSES. 

each otherj by means of those connectives which are followed 
by the subjunctive mood. 

1. In clauses thus connected, the present, perfect, and the 
periphrastic forms with sim Bind fuerim^ may depend on, 

(1.) The Present ; as, JVon sum ita hebes, ut istuc dicam. Cic. Quan- 
tum dolorem acceperim, tu existimdre potes. Id. JVec dubito quin reditus 
ejus reipubllcce salutdris futarus sit. Id. 

(2.) The Perfect Definite ; as, Satis provisum est, ut ne quid agere 
possint. Id. Quis musicis, quis huic studio literdrum se dedidit, quin om- 
nem illdrum artium vim comprehenderit. Id. Defectiones solis prasdictss 
sunt, qucEj quantcB, quando futuraB sint. Id. 

(3.) The Futures ; as, Sic facillimd, quanta oraiorum sit, semper que 
fuerit paucltasj judicabit. Id. Ad quos dies rediturus sim, scribam ad te. 
Id. Si scieris aspidem latere uspiajn, et velle aliquem super earn assidere, 
cujus mors tibi emolumentum factura sit, improbh leceris, nisi monueris, ne 
assideat. Id. 

2. So the imperfect, pluperfect, and periphrastic forms with 
essem and fuisserrij may depend on, 

(1.) The Imperfect; as, Unum illud exiimescehain, ne quid turjntcr 
facerem, vel jam effecissem. Cic. Kon enim dubitabam, quin eas libenter 
lecturus esses. Id. 

(2.) The Perfect Indefinite ; as, Veni in ejus villam ut libros inde 
promerem. Id. Hcec cum essent nuntiata, Valeriis classem extemplo ad 
ostium fluminis duxit. Liv. JVe Clodius quidem de insidiis cogitavit, 
siquidem exiturus ad ccedem e villa, non fuisset. Cic. 

(3.) The Pluperfect; as, Pavor ceperat milites, ne mortiferum esset 
vulmis. Liv. Ego ex ipso audieram, quam a te liber aliter esset tractatus. 
Cic. JVoTi satis mi/ii constiterat, cum aliquone animi mei molestid, an 
potius libenter te Athenis visurus essem. Id. 

Remark 1. When the present is used in narration for the perfect in- 
definite, it may, Hke the latter, be followed by the imperfect; as, Legdtos 
mittunt, ut pacem impetrarent. Caes. 

Rem. 2. The perfect definite is often followed by the imperfect, even 
when a present action or state is spoken of, if it is not confined to the 
present ; as. Sunt philosophi et fuerunt, qui omnino nullum habere cense- 
rent humandrum rerum procurationein Dcos. Cic. 

Rem. 3. The perfect indefinite is not regularly followed by the perfect 
subjunctive, as the latter is not, in general, used in reference to past action 
indefinite. See § 260, I. Rem. 3. 

These tenses are, however, sometimes used in connection, in the narra- 
tive of a past event, especially in Livy and Cornelius Nepos ; as. In 
^quis varie bellatum est, adeo ut in incerto fuerit, vicissent, victine essent. 
Liv. Factum est, ut plus quam collegce Miltiddes valuerit. Nep. 

The imperfect and perfect are even found together after the perfect in- 
definite, when one action is represented as permanent or repeated, and 
the other simply as a fact ; as, Adeo nihil miseriti sunt, ut incur sidnes fa- 
cerent et Veios in ammo habuerint oppugndre. Liv. 

Rem. 4. As present infinitives and present participles depend for their 
time upon the verbs with which they are connected, they are followed by 
such tenses as those verbs may require ; as, Apelles pictores quoque eos 
peccare dicebat, ^ui non sentlrent, quid esset satis. Cic. Ad te scripsi, te 
leviter accusans m eo, quod de me cito credidisses. Id. 



SYNTAX. INDICATIVE MOOD. 225 

Rem. 5. The perfect infinitive follows the general rul^, and takes 
after it a tense of present or past time, according as it is used in a definite 
or indefinite sense ; diS,Arhitrdraur nos ea praestitisse, qucB ratio et doctrina 
prasscripserit, Cic. Est quod gavdcas te in ista loca venisse, uhi aliquid 
sapcre viderere. Id. 

But it may sometimes take a diflferent tense, according to Rem. 2; as, 
lia mild vidcor et esse Deos, et quales essent satis ostendisse. Cic. 

II. Dissimilar tenses may be made dependent on each other, 
in order to express actions whose time is different. 

Hence, the present may be followed by the imperfect or pluperfect, to 
express a contingency dependent upon some condition not actually exist- 
ing ; as, Nemo dubltdre debet, quin multos, si fieri posset, Ccesar ah inferis 
excitaret. Cic. So the perfect indefinite may be followed by the present, 
to express the present result of a past event ; as, Tanti sonltus fuerunt, ut 
ego brevior sim, quod eos usque istinc exaudltos putem. Cic. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

^ 259. The indicative mood is used in independent and 
absolute assertions. It is often employed, also, in conditional 
and dependent clauses, to denote that which is supposed or ad- 
mitted ; as, Si vales, bene est. Cic. It may likewise be used 
in interrogations ; as, Quid agis, ecquid commode vales? Plin. 

Remark I. The several tenses have already been defined, and their 
usual significations have been given in the paradigms. They are, how- 
ever, sometimes otherwise rendered, one tense being used with the mean 
ing of another, either in the same or in a different mood. Thus, 

(1.) The present is sometimes used for the future ; as^ Quam mox nav- 
igo Ephesum 7 How soon do I sail for Ephesus .'' Plaut. 

(2.) The perfect for the pluperfect ; as, Sed postquam aspexi, illico cog- 
novi, But after I (had) looked at it, I recognized it immediately. Ter. 

This is the usual construction after postquam^ ubi, ut, ut primum^ 
ut semel, quum primum, simul ac, and simul atque, in the sense of when, 
as soon as, in direct narration. 

(3.) The pluperfect for the perfect ; as, Dixerat, et spissis noctis se con- 
didit umbris, She (had) said^ and hid herself in the thick shades of night. 
Virg. 

(4.) The future for the imperative mood; as, Valebis, Farewell. Cic. 

(5.) The future perfect for the future ; as. Alio loco de oratoruvi anXmo 
et injur iis videro, I shall see (have seen).... Cic. This use seems toiesult 
from viewing a future action as if already completed. 

Rem. 2. When a future action is spoken of either in the ftiture, or in 
the imperative, or the subjunctive used imperatively, and another future 
action is connected with it, the latter is expressed by the future tense, if 
the actions relate to the same time, but by the future perfect, if the one 
must be completed before the other is performed. This verb in English 
is usually put in the present tense ; as, Faciam si potero ; I will do it, if I 
can, i. c. if I^shall have been able. So, Ut sementem feceris, ita, metts. Cic. 

R^.."\y. 3. In CYpressions denoting the pjopriety, practico-bilitj^^ or ad- 



226 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

vantage of an action which was not performed, the past tenses of the in- 
dicative are used, while in English the potential, in such cases, is more 
common; as, Milonis optabilius fuit dare jugulum P. Clodio, It would 
have been more desirable,... Cic. -^quius huic Turnum fuerat se opponere 
morti. Virg. Such expressions are par^ ceguum, consentaneum, justum, 
iitlle J difficile, &c., with est. 

Rem. 4. The past tenses of the indicative are often used for the im- 
perfect or pluperfect subjunctive, in the conclusion of a conditional clause ; 
as. Si non alium longe jactdret odorerrijlauriis erat,....it would have been a 
laurel. Virg. JVec veni, nisi fata locum sedemque dedissent. Id. Pons 
suhlicius iter pcene hostihus dedit, ni unus cir fuisset Horatius Codes. Liv. 
Si mens non Iceva fuisset, impulerat. Virg. Sometimes also in the con- 
dition ; as, ^t fuerat melius, si ie puer iste tenebat. Ovid. See § 261. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

<§> 260. The subjunctive mood is used to express an action 
or state simply as conceived by the mind. 

It takes its name from its being commonly used in subjoined or depend- 
ent clauses. In some cases, however, it is found in independent clauses, 
or at least in such as have no obvious dependence. 

I. The subjunctive often implies the existence of an action 
or state, ivithoiit directly asserting it. When this is the case, 
its tenses are commonly to be translated in the same manner as 
the corresponding tenses of the indicative ; as, 

Citm esset Ccesar in Gallid, When Caesar was in Gaul, not might he. 
Caes. Rogas me quid tristis ego sim....why 1 am sad. Tac. 

Remark 1. In this sense, its tenses have, in general, the same limita- 
tion in respect to time as those of the indicative, but the imperfect is com 
monly used rather than the perfect, to denote indefinite past action ; as, 
Quo factum est, ut brevi tempore illustraretur ; By which it happened that, 
in a short time, he became famous. Nep. 

Rem. 2. The subjunctive, in such cases, depends upon the particles 
and other words to which it is subjoined, and its meaning must be care- 
fully distinguished from that which is stated in the following rule. 

II. The subjunctive is used to express what is contingent or 
hypothetical, including possibility, "power, liberty, will, duty, 
and desire. In this use, it does not imply the existence of the 
action or state which the verb expresses. 

Remark 1. The tenses of the subjunctive, thus used, have the signifi- 
cations which have been given in the paradigms, and are, in general, not 
limited, in regard to time, like the corresponding tenses of the indicative. 
Thus, 

(1.) The present, in this sense, may refer either to present or future 
time ; as, Mediocribus et quis ignoscas vitiis teneor ; I am subject to mode- 
rate faults, and such as you may excuse. Hor. Orat a CcBsdre ut det sibi 
veniam, He begs of Caesar that he would give him leave. Caes. 

(2.) The imperfect may relate either to past, present, or future time; as, 



SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD» 227 

Si fata fuissent ut caderem, If it had been my fate that 1 should fall. Virg. 
Si jwssem, sanior essem', If I could, I would be wiser. Ovid. Ceteros 
raperem et prosternerem, The rest I would seize and prostrate. Ter. 

(3.) The perfect relates either to past or future time ; as, Errarim for- 
tassc, Perhaps I may have erred. Plin. Videor sper are posse j si te viderim, 
ea facile (me) transiturum.... if I can see you.... Cic. 

(4.) The pluperfect relates to past time, expressing a contingency, 
which is usually future with respect to some past time mentioned in con- 
nection with it ; as, Id responderunt se facturos esse, cum ille vento ^qui- 
ionc venisset Lemnum.,.. when he should have come.... Nep. 

Rem. 2. The imperfect subjunctive, in Latin, is sometimes employed, 
where, in English, the pluperfect would be used ; as, Quod si quis deus di- 
ceret, nunquam putarem me in academid tanquam philosophum disputatu- 
rum, If any god had said. ...I never should have supposed.... Cic. 

On the other hand, the pluperfect in Latin is sometimes used, where the 
imperfect is commonly employed in English ; as, Promlsit se scripturum, 
quuni primiim nuntium accepisset.... as soon as he (should have) received 
the news. 

Rem. 3. The present and perfect subjunctive may be used to denote 
a supposition ; as, Vendat cedes vir bonus ^ Suppose an honest man is sell- 
ing a house. Cic. Dixerit Epicurus, Grant that Epicurus has said. Id. 

Rem. 4. The present and perfect subjunctive are used to soften an 
assertion; as, JVemo istud tihi concedat, or concesserit; No one would 
grant you that. Volo and its compounds are often so used in the present; 
as, Velim ohvias mihi liter as crebro mittas, I could wish that you would 
frequently send letters to meet me. Cic. The perfect, used in this sense, 
has often the force of the present; as, Quis enim hoctibi concesserit.^ Cic. 

Rem. 5. The present and perfect tenses are also used in questions 
which imply a doubt respecting the probability or propriety of an ac- 
tion ; as, Quis dubitet quin in virtute divitice sint 1 Who can doubt that 
riches consist in virtue '^. Cic. Quisquam numen Junonis adoret yrceterea 7 
Who will henceforth adore the divinity of Juno .'' Virg. Quidni, inquii 
meminerim .'' Cic. 

Rem. 6. The present subjunctive is often used to express a 
wish, an exhortation, a request, a command, or a permission ; 

as, 

J\ e sim salvus, May I perish. Cic. In media arma ruamus, Let us rush... . 
Virg. Ne me dXimg^s, sceleste ; Do not touch me.... Ter. Faciat quod 
lubet, Let him do what he pleases. Id. The perfect is often so used, and 
sometimes the pluperfect ; as, Ipse viderit. Let him see to it himself Cic. 
Fuisset, Be it so, or It might have been so. Virg. Viderint sapientes. 
Cic. 

Ke is commonly employed as a negative, rather than now, in this use 
of the subjunctive. 

Rem. 7. In the regular paradigms of the verb, no future subjunctive 
was exhibited either in the active or passive voice. 

(1.) When the expression of futurity is contained in another part of the 
sentence, the future of the subjunctive is supplied by some other tense of 
that mood ; as, Tantum moneo hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum un- 
quam magis idoneum reperturum ; I only warn you, that, if you should 
lose this opportunity, you will never find one more convenient. Cic. 



228 SYNTAX. PROTASIS AND AP0I>OSIS, 

(2.) If no other future is contained in the sentence, the place of the 
future subjunctive active is supplied by the participle in rus, v/ith sim or 
fucrhn, essem or fuissem; as, jXofi dubitat quin or em Troja sit peritura, He 
does not doubt that Troy would soon be destroyed. Cic. See Periphrastic 
Conjugations, § 162, 14. 

(3.) The future subjunctive passive is supplied, not by the participle in 
dus, but hy futurura sit or esset, with 2it ; as, JVoti duhito quin futurum 
sit, ut laudetur ; I do not doubt that he will be praised. 

Re3i. 8. The imperfect, when relating to past or present 
time, and also the pluperfect, both when they stand alone, and 
in conditional clauses with si, &lc., as also after utmam and 
O ! si, imply the non-existence of the action or state denoted by 
the verb ; the present and perfect do not decide in regard to 
its existence ; as^ 

Noilem datum esse, 1 could wish it had not been paid. Ter. Nolim 
datum esse, I hope it has not been paid. Utinam jam adesset, 1 wish 
he were now present. Cic. Utinam ea res ei voluptdti sit, I hope that 
thing^ is a pleasure to him. Id. 



PROTASIS AND APODOSIS. 

^ 26 !• In a sentence containing a condition and a con- 
elusion, the former is called the protasis, the latter the apodosis. 

1. In conditional clauses with si, ni, nisi, quasi, etsi, tametsi^ 
and etiamsi^ the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used 
in the protasis, when the action or state supposed does not or 
did not exist. The same tenses are used in the apodosis, to 
denote that^ if the action or state expressed in the protasis did 
exist, or had existed (the contrary of which is implied), another 
action or state would exist or would have existed ; as, 

Nisi te satis incitdtum esse confiderem, scriberem plura ; Did 1 not 
believe that you had been sufficiently incited, I would write more (Cic.) ; 
which implies that he does believe, and therefore will not write. Ea si de 
me uno cogitasset, nunquam illius lacrymis ac precibus restitissem. Id. 

2. The present and perfect subjunctive are used in the 
protasis, when the action or state supposed may, or may not 
exist, or have existed ; as. 

Omnia brevia tolerabilia esse debent, etiamsi maxima sint, although 

they may be very great. Cic. Etsi id fugerit Isocrdtes, at non Thucydi- 
des ; Although Isocrates may have avoided that Id. 

Remark 1. The tenses of the indicative may also be used in the 
protasis of a conditional sentence with si-, &c. ; as. Si vales, bene est. Cic. 
Si quis antea mirabatur quid esset, ex hoc tempore miretur potius.... Id. 

Rem. 2. The subjunctive after si, &c., implies a greater degree of con- 
tingency than the indicative. When the imperfect or pluperfect is 
required to denote a past action, the indicative must be used, if its exist* 



SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PAPTICLES. 229 

ence is uncertain, as those tenses in the subjunctive would imply its non- 
existence. 

Rem. 3. The present and perfect subjunctive are sometimes used, both 
in the protasis and apodosis of a conditional sentence, in the sense of the 
imperfect and pluperfect; as, Tu^ si h\c sis, aliter sentias ; If you were 
here, you would think otherwise. Ter. Quos, ni mea cura resistat,jam 
flammce tulerint. Virg. 

Rem. 4. The protasis of a conditional sentence is frequently not 
expressed, but implied ; as, Magno mercentur Mrldoi^ i. e. si possint 
Virg. 

SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 

<§) 262. A clause denoting the purpose, object, or 
result of a preceding proposition, takes the subjunctive 
after ut^ ne, quo, quin, and quommus ; as, 

Ea rwrij ut te instituerem, scrip si ; I did not w^rite that in order to 
instruct you. Cic, Irritant ad pugnandum, quo fiant acriores ; They 
stimulate them to fight, that they may become fiercer. Varr. 

Remark 1. Ut, denoting a result, often relates to sic, ita, 
adeo, tarn, talis, tantus, is, ejusmodi, &/C., in the preceding clause; 
as, 

Id mihi sic erit gratum, ut gr alius esse nihil possit ; That will be so 
agreeable to me, that nothing can be more so. Cic. JVb/i sum ita hebes, 
ut istuc dicam. Id. JVeque tam erdmus amentes, ut explordta nobis esset 
victoria. Id. Tantum indulsit dolori, ut eum pietas vinceret. Nep. Ita 
and tam are sometimes omitted ; as, Epaminondas fuit disertiLS, ut nemo 
ei par esset. Id. 

Rem. 2. Ut, signifying although, takes the subjunctive ; 
as, 

Ut desint vires, tamen est lavdanda voluntas; Though strength be 
wanting, yet the will is to be praised. Ovid, 

Rem, 3. Ut, with the subjunctive, is used v^ith impersonal 
verbs signifying it happens, it remains, it follows, &/C. ; as, 

Qui fit, ut nemo contentus vivat ^ How does it happen that no one lives 
contented ? Hor. Huic contigit, ut patriam ex servitute in libertdtem vin- 
dicaret. Nep. Sequltur igitur, ut etimn vitia sint par ca. Cic. Reliquum 
est, ut egomet mihi consulam. Nep. Restat igitur, ut motus astrorum sit 
voluntariu^. Cic. Extremum illud est, ut te orem et obsecrem. Id. 

To this principle may be referred the following verbs and phrases : — 
fit, fieri non potest, accidit, incidit, occurrit, contingit, evenit, usu venit, 
rarum est, sequitur , futurum est, reliquum est, relinquitur, restat, super est, 
caput est, extremum est. 

For other uses o^ ut, with the subjunctive, see § 273. 

Rem. 4. Ut is often omitted before the subjunctive, after 
verbs denoting willingness, umvillingness, or permission ; also 
after verbs of asking, advising, reminding, ^c., and the im- 
peratives die andy^c ; as, 
20 



230 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES, 

Quid visfaciam 7 What do you wish (that) I should do ? Ter. Insmii 
feriant sine litora fluctus. Virg. Tentes dissimuldre rogat. Ovid. Id 
sinas oro. Id. Se suadere, dixit, Pharnabazo id negotii daret. Nep. 
Accedat oportet actio varia. Cic. Fac cogites. Id. 

Verbs of wilUngness, &c., are volo, nolo, malo, permitto, potior, sino, 
licet, veto, &c. ; those of asking, &c., are rogo, oro, moneo, jubeo, man- 
do, peto, frecor, censeo, suadeo, oportet, necesse est, &c. 

Rem. 5. Ne (lest) expresses a purpose negatively ; as, 

Cur a ne quid ei desit, Take care that nothing be wanting to him. Cic. 
Ut ne are frequently used for ne ; as, Optra detur, uijudicia ne Jiant. Id. 

Rem. 6, Ne is often omitted after cave ; as, 

Cave putes, Take care that you do not suppose. Cic. 

Rem. 7. After mctuo, timeo, vereor, and other expressions 
denoting fear, ne must be rendered by that or lest, and ut by 
that not ; as, 

^lilo metuebat, ne a servis indicaretur, Milo feared that he should be be- 
trayed by his servants. Cic. Pavor erat, ne castra hostis aggrederetur. 
Liv. Ilia duo vereor, ut tibi possim concedere, I fear that I cannot grant.... 
Cic. 

Rem. 8. The proposition on v/hich the subjunctive with ut and ne de- 
pends, is sometimes omitted ; as, Ut ita dicam. Cic. JVe singulos nominem. 
Liv. 

Rem. 9. Qud (that, in order that), especially with a compar- 
ative ; non quo, or non quod (not that, not as if), followed by 
sed; and quommus (that not), after clauses denoting hindrance, 
take the subjunctive ; as, 

Adjuta me, quo id fiat facilius; Aid me, that that maybe done more 
easily. Ter. Non quo republicd sit mihi quicquam carius, sed desperdtis 
etiavn Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicinam. Cic. Non quod sola ornent, 
sed quod excellant. Id. JVeque recusdvit, quo minus legis poenam subiret. 
Nep. 

Rem. 10. Quin, after negative propositions and questions 

implying a negative, takes the subjunctive. Quiji is used, 

1. For a relative with non, after nemo, nullus, nihil.... est, reperltur, 
invenltur, &c. ; vix est,, cegre reperltur, &c. : as, Messdnam nemo venit, quin 
viderit, i. e. qui non viderit ; No one came to Messana v/ho did not see. 
Cic. J^ego ullam, picturam fuisse....q{im conquisierit, i. e. quam non, &c. 
Id, J{ihil est, quin male narrando possit depravdri. Ter. 

2. For ut non, after non dubito, non est dubium, facere non possum, fieri 
non potest; nihil, haud multum, haud procul, or minimum,.. ab est ; nihil 
pTcetermitto, non recuso, temperdre mihi non possum, vix, cegre, &c, ; as, 

Facere non possum quin ad te mittam, i. e. ut non, &c. Cic. Ego nihil 
prcetermisi, quin Pompeium a CcBsdris conjunctione avocarem. Id. Pror- 
sus nihil abest quin sim miserrimus. Id. Quis igitur dubitet quin in vir- 
tute divitice positse sint ? Id. Ego vix teneor quin accurram. Id. 

<§> 263. 1. The subjunctive is used after particles of wish- 
ing, as utmam, uti, and O ! si ; as, 

Utinam minus xitce cupidi fuissemus 1 O that we had been less attached 



SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES. 231 

to life ! Cic. si solitce quicquam virtutis adesset ! Virg. The tense is 
determined by § 2G0, II. Rem. 8. 

2. Quamvis, however ; licet^ although ; tanquam, quasi, ac si, 
lit si\ velut si, veluti, and ceu, as if; modd, dum, and dunnnodOy 
provided, — take the subjunctive ; as, 

Quamvis ille felix sit. However happy he may be. Cic. Veritas licet 
nullum defensdrem obtineat, Though truth should obtain no defender. Id. 
Me omnibus rebus, jaxta ac si meus f rater esset, sustentdvlt ; He supported 
me in every thing, just as though he were my brother. Id. Omiii'i honestci 
negligunt dummodo potentiam consequantur ; They disregard every hon- 
orable principle, provided they can obtain power. Id. Dum 7riihi ant- 
mum reddas. Hor. 

Quamvis (although) has commonly the subjunctive ; as, Quamvis non 
fueris suasor,approbdtor certe falsti. Cic. Sometimes also the indicative j 
as, Felicem JVlobem, quamvis tot f antra vidit. Ovid. 

Quanquam (although), in Tacitus, and in other later writers, is sometimes 
used with the subjunctive. 

3. After antequam and priusquam, the imperfect and pluper- 
fect tenses are usually in the subjunctive ; the present and per- 
fect may be either in the indicative or subjunctive ; but when 
one thing is declared to be necessary or proper to precede an- 
other, the subjunctive is used ; as, 

Ea causa ante raortua e5^,quam tu natus esses, That cause was dead be- 
fore you were born. Cic. Avertit equos, priusquam pabitla gustassent Trojcs^ 
Xanthumque bibissent. Virg. Priusquam incipias, consuito opus est ; Be- 
fore you begin, there is need of counsel. Sail. 

4. Dum, donee, and quoad, signifying until, are followed by 
the subjunctive, if they refer to the attainment of an object ; as, 

Dum kic venlret, locum relinquere noluit ; He was unwilling to leave 
the place until he (Milo) should come. Cic. Nihil puto tibi esse utilius, 
quam operlri quoad scire possis, quid tibi agendum sit. Id. 

5. Quum or cwm, when it signifies a relation of time^ 
takes the indicative ; when it denotes a connection of 
thought, the subjunctive ; as. 

Cum est allatum ad nos, gramter commotus sum ; When it was reported 
to us, I was greatly moved. Cic. Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia, pec- 
cem., si morer tua tempora, Ccesar ; Since you are burdened with so many 
and so important affairs, I should do wrong, if I should occupy your time, 
Caesar. Hor. 

Remark 1. Ciim, relating to time, is commonly translated when; 
referring to a train of thought, it signifies since or although. It is some- 
times used as equivalent to quod (because), and then takes the indicative; 
as, Cum te semper dilexi, necesse est ut sim totus vester. Cic. 

Rem. 2. In narration, cumis usually joined with the imper- 
fect and pluperfect subjunctive, even when it relates to time ; 
as, 

Gracchus, cum rem illam in rcligionem populo venisse sentlret, ad send- 
turn retulit. Cic. Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix manus a se ah- 
stinuit. Id. 



232 SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIYE AFTER QUI. 

In most instances of this construction, the event denoted by the sab- 
junctive seems to relate to that expressed in the clause on which the 
subjunctive depends, not only in regard to timej but also as, in some 
sense, a cause. In general, when the attention is directed chiefly to the 
tune at which an action occurred, the indicative in any tense may be used; 
when to the action itself, the subjunctive ; as, Hcbc cum scribebam jaw turn 
existimdham ad te orationem esse perldtavi. Cic. Cum sciret Clodius iter 
necessarium Miloni esse Lanuviuvi, Roma suhito ipse profectus est. Id. 

For the subjunctive after si and its compounds, see § 261. 



SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 

■§> 204. 1. When the relative qui follows tanij adeo, 
tantus, talis^ — or is. Hie, cr hie, in the sense of talis, — and is 
equivalent to ut with a personal or demonstrative pro- 
noun, it takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Qtds est tam Lijnceus qui in tantis tenehris nihil ofFendat? i.e. ut in tan- 
tis....; Who is so quick-sighted, that he would not stumble in such dark- 
ness. Cic. Talem te esse oportet, qui ab impiorum cixium societdte sejun- 
gas. Id. .it eafait Icgotio Octavii, in qua periculi suspicio non suhessety 
i. e. ut in ed. Id. A'ec tamen ego sura ille ferreus, qui fratris carissimi 
incerorc non movear, i. e. ut ego non inovear. Id. 

Sometimes the demonstrative word is only implied ; as, 

B.es parva dictzi, sed qua3 studiis in magnunri certdmen excesserit, i. e. 
talis ut... .of such a kind that it issued in a violent contest. Cic. So quis 
sum, for num talis sum ; as, Quis sum, cujy^ aures Icedi nefas sit ? Sen. 

2. When the relative is equivalent to quanquam is, etsi 
is, or dummodo is, it takes the subjunctive : as, 

Laco , consilii quamvis egregii, quod non ipse Siffeiret, iiiimlcu^ ; Laco, an 
opponent of any measure, however excellent, provided he did not himself 
propose it. Tac. Tu aquam a pumice postulas, qui ipsus sitiat. Plaut. 
J^ihil molestum quod non desideres, i. e. dummodo id. Cic. 

3. Quod, in restrictive clauses, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Quod sine molestid tud fiat, So far as it can be done without troubling 
you. Cic. Sesti2is Jioji vejierat quod scmm... so fdii as I know. Id. 

4. The relative, after the comparative followed hy qudm, 
takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Major sum quam cui possit fortuna nocere, \. e. quam ut mihi, &c. ; I 
am too great for fortune to be able to injure me. Ovid. Audita voce prce- 
cdnis majus gaudium fuit quam quod univcrsum homines caperent ; Upon 
the herald's voice being heard, the joy was too great for the people to 
contain. Li v. 

5. A relative clause expressing a purpose or motive, and 
equivalent to ut with a demonstrative, takes the subjunc- 
tive ; as, 

Lacedcemonii legdtos Athenas miserunt, qui eum ahsentem accusarent; 



SYNTAX. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI. 233 

The Lacedgemonians sent ambassadors to Athens to accuse him in his ab- 
sence. Nep. C(Esar cquitatum omnem j^rcBmlttitj qui videant, quas in par* 
tes iter faciant. Coe^s. 

So with relative adverbs; as, Lampsdcum ci (Thcmistocli) rex dondrat, 
unde vimitn sumeret, i. e. ex qud or ut inde, &lq.. Nep. 

6. A relative clause after an indefinite general expres- 
sion, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Fuerunt ed, tempestdte, qui dicerent ; There were some at that time Vvrho 
said. Sail. Erant, quibus appetentior famce videretur ; There were those to 
whom he appeared too desirous of fame. Tac. Erunt, qui existlmdri velint. 
Cic. Si quis erit, qui perpetuam orationem desideret, alter d actions audiet. 
Id. Venient legiones, quae neque me inultum, neque te impunltuin patian- 
tur. Tac. So after est, in the sense of " there is reason wliy ; " as, Est 
quod gaudeas, You have cause to rejoice. Plant. Est quod visam domum. 
Id. Si est quod desit, ne hedtus quidem est. Cic. 

The expressions included in the rule are est, sunt, adest, proisto sunty 
existunt, exoriuntur, inveninntur, reperiuntur, si quis est, tempus fuit, teni' 
pus veniet, &c. 

The same construction occurs with relative particles used indefinitely ; 
as, Est unde hcec fiant, Thei'e are resources whence this may be done. 
Ter. Est ubi id isto modo valeat. Cic. 

The above and similar expressions are followed by the subjunctive only 
when they are indefinite. Hence, after sunt quidam, sunt nonnuUi, sunt 
multi, &c., when referring to definite persons, the relative takes the in- 
dicative ; as, Sunt orationes qmedam, quas Menocrito dabo. Cic. 

The indicative is sometimes, though rarely, used after sunt qui, even 
when taken indefinitely, especially in the poets ; as. Sunt, quos juvat. Hor. 

7. A relative clause after a general negative, or an in- 
terrogative expression implying a negative, takes the sub- 
junctive ; as, 

JVemo est, qui haud intelligat ; There is no one who does not understand. 
Cic. Nulla res est, qum perfei're possit continuum laborem ; There is nothing 
which can endure perpetual labor. Quinct. Nulla pars est corpdris, quae 
non sit minor. Id. JVihil est, quod non alicubi esse cogatur. Id. In foro 
vix decimus quisque est, qui ipsus sese noscat. Plant. Quis est, qui utilia 
fugiat.'' Who is there that shuns what is useful ? Cic. Jin est quisquam, 
qui hoc ignoret ? Is there any one who is ignorant of this ? Id. Numquid 
est mail, quod non dixeris .^ Ter. 

General negatives are nemo, nullus, nihil, unus non, alius non, non 
quisquam, vix ullus, nee ullus, &c., with est ; vix with an ordinal and 
quisque ; nego esse quenquam, &c. Interrogative expressions implying a 
negative, are quis, quantus, uter, ecquis, numquis, an quisquam, an aliquiSy 
quotus quisque, quotus, &c., with est ; quot, quam multi, &.C., with sunt. 
1. The same construction is used after non est, nihil est, quid est, numquid 
est, &c., followed by quod, cur, or quare, and denoting ^^ there is no reason 
why," '' what cause .'* " '^ is there any reason ? " as, Quod timeas, non est ; 
There is no reason why you should fear. Ovid. Nihil est, quod adventum 
nostrum pertimescas. Cic. Qidd est, quod de ejus civitdte dubites ? Id. 
Quid est, cur virtus ipsa per se non efficiat bedtos ? Id. 

So afler non habeo, or nihil habco ; SiS, Non haheo, quod te accusem. Cic. 
Nihil haheo, quod scribam. Id. 

Note. The relative clause takes the subjunctive after the expressions 
20* 



^34 



SYNTAX.- — SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER QUI* 



included in this and the last rule, only when it expresses what is intended 
to be affirmed of the subject of the antecedent clause ; as, JYemo est, qui 
nesciat ; There is no one who is ignorant, i. e. no one is ignorant. Cic. 
So Sunt, qui hoc carpant; There are some who blame this, i. e. some blame 
this. Veil. 

If the relative clause is to be construed as a part of the logical subject, it 
does not require the subjunctive ; as, JS^ihil stabile est, quod infidum est- 
Nothing which is faithless is firm. Cic. 

8. A relative clause expressing the reason of what goes 
before, takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Peccavisse mihi videor. qui a te discesserim ; I think I have erred in 
having left you. Cic. Iiiertiam accusas adolescentium, qui istam artem 
nan ediseant ; You blame the idleness of the young men, because they da 
not learn that art thoroughly. Id. fortunate adolescens, qui tu(B virtutis 
Homerum prceconevi inveneris ! Id. 

Sometimes, instead of qui alone, ut^ quippCy or utjpote — qui^ 
is used, generally with the subjunctive ; as, 

Convima cum patre non inlbat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi 
raro venisset. Cic. JXeque Jlntonius yrocul aberat, utpote qui magno 
cxercitu sequeretur. Sail. 

9. After dignus, indignus, aptusy and idoneus. a relative 
clause takes the subjunctive ; as, 

Videtur, qui aliquando imperet, dignus esse; He seems to be worthy at 
some time to command. Cic. Pompeius idoneus non est, qui impetret. Id. 
Et rem idoneam, de qua quaeratur, et homines dignos, quibuscww disseratur, 
putant. Id. 

Note. If the relative clause does not express that of which the person 
or thing denoted by the antecedent is worthy, its construction is not 
influenced by this rule. Thus, Quis serxus libertate dignus fuit, cui 
nostra salus cara non esset ? The subjunctive is here used according to 
No. 7 of this section. 

10. A relative clause, after unus and solus^ restricting 
the affirmation to a particular subject, takes the subjunc- 
tive ; as, 

Hcec est una contentio, quas adhuc permanserit ; This is the only dispute 
which has remained till this time. Cic. Voluptas est sola, quae nos vocet 
ad se, et alliceat suapte naturd ; Pleasure is the only thing that, by its own 
nature, invites and allures us to itself. Id. 

11. When the relative refers to ^ dependent clause, it o^ien 
takes the subjunctive. See § 266. 

12. The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in 
a narrative after relative pronouns and adverbs, when a repeated 
action is spoken of; as, 

Semper hahiti sunt fortissimi, qui summam imperii potirentur ; Those 
have always been considered the bravest, who obtained the supreme do- 
minion. Nep. Ut quisque maxim^ laboraret locu^, aut ipse occurrehat, aut 
aliquos mHtEbat. So after si quis or qui ; as, Si qui rem, malitiosius gessis- 
set, dedecus existimabant. Cic. 



SYNTAX, SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 235 



SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 

<§> 265. Dependent clauseS) containing an indirect 
question, take the subjunctive. 

A question is indirect when its substance is stated without the inter- 
rogative form ; as, 

Qualis sit atiimus, ipse animus iiescit; The mind itself knows not what 
the mind is. Cic. Credlhilc n07i est, quantum scribam ; It is incredible how 
mucli I write. Id. Quis ego sim, me rogitas? Do you ask me who I am .^ 
Plant. j\ec quid scribam, haheo ; Nor have I any thing to write. Id. 
Doce me, ubi sint dil ^ Inform me where the gods are. Id. Quam pridem 
sibi hercditas venisset, docct. Id. Nunc accipe, quare desipiant omnes. Hor. 
Id utrum ilU sentiant, an vera simulent, tu intelliges. Cic. Qucuro, num tu 
senatui causam, tuam permittas. Id. Vides, ut altd stet nive candidum 
Soractc. Hor. JYescit, vltdne fruatur, an sit apud manes. Ovid. 

All interrogatives may be thus used in indirect questions ; as, 

Quantus, qualis, quot, quotus, quotuplex, uter ;quis,qui, cujas;ubi,qud, 
unde, qua, quorsum, quamdiu, quamdudum, quampridem, quoties, cur, quarCy 
quamobrem, queniadmodum, quomodo, ut, quam, quantopere, an, ne, num, 
utrum, anne, annon. 

Remark 1. The indicative is sometimes used in such constructions ; 
as, Vide avaritia quid facit. Ter. 

Rem. 2. In double questions, the first may be introduced hyutriim, num, 
or the enclitic nej and, in such case, the second is usually introduced by 
a7i ; as, Multum interest, utrum laus imminuatur, an salvs deseratur. Cic. 
The first question is sometimes without any interrogative particle, and the 
second is then introduced hj an ox ne ; b,s, JYunc hdihemnfiliuni, necne, 
incerturn est. Ter. 

Rem. 3. Dubito an, liaud scio an, nescio an, though implying some 
doubt, have generally a sense almost affirmative ; as, Dubito, an /tunc pri- 
nium omnium ponam ; I am inclined to place him first of all. Nep. 

Rem. 4. Nescio quis, used nearly in the sense of aliquis, does not influ- 
ence the mood of the following verb ; as, Lucv^, nescio quo casu, nocturno 
tempore incensus est. Nep. 

SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 

<§) 266. 1. When a proposition containing either an 
accusative with the infinitive, or a verb in the subjunc- 
tive, has a clause connected with it, as an essential party 
either by a relative, a relative adverb, or a conjunction, the 
verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunctive ; as. 

Quid eriim potest esse tarn perspicuum, quam esse aliquod numen, quo 
hcec regantur ? For what can be so clear as that there is some divinity by 
whom these things are governed.? Cic. Illud sic fere dejinlri solet, deco- 
rum, id esse, quod consentaneum sit hominis excellentice. Id. Audiam quid 
sit, quod Eplcurum non probes ; I shall hear why it is that you do not 
approve of Epicurus. Id. Jussit ut, quce venissent, naves EubcEum peterent* 
Liv. 



236 SYNTAX.— SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 

A clause, thus connected to a preceding dependent proposition, is some- 
times called an intermediate clause. 

To this rule belongs the construction of the oratio obllqua, or indirect 
discourse, that is, the relating the words or sentiments of another, not in 
the exact form in which they were expressed or conceived, but in that of 
narration. Thus, Cassar said, " I cajne, I saw, I conquered," is direct, — - 
Ceesar said, that he came, saw, and conquered, is indirect discourse. 

2. In the oratio obllqua, the main proposition is ex- 
pressed by the accusative with the infinitive ; and depend- 
ent clauses connected with it by relatives and particles^ 
take the subjunctive. 

Thus, Cicero and Quinctilian, in quoting the language of Marcus An- 
tonius, make use, the former of the oratio directa, the latter of the oratio 
obliqua ; — Antonius inquit, " Jlrs edrum rerum est, quae sciuntur ; " Antoni- 
us says, ^' Art belongs to those things which are known." Cic. Antoni^is 
inquity artem edrum rerum esse, quse sciantur; Antonius says, that art 
belongs to those things which are known. Quinct. 

So, Socrates dicere solebat, omnes, in eo quod scirent, satis esse eloquentes ; 
Socrates was accustomed to say, that all are sufficiently eloquent in that 
which they understand. Cic. Cato mirdri se aiebat, quod non rideret 
aruspex, aruspicem cum vidisset. Id. JS'egat jvs esse, qui miles non sit, 
pugndre cum hoste. Id. IndigJiabantur ibi esse imperium, ubi non esset 
libertas. Liv. Itdque Atkenienses, quod honestuin non esset, id ne utile qui- 
dem (esse) putaverunt. Cic. 

Remark 1. When the subjunctive would be necessary in the oratio 
directa, to denote liberty, power, &c., the same remains in the oratio obli- 
qua, and is not changed into the infinitive with an accusative ; as, Ad hcec 
Ariovistus respondit, quum vellet. congrederetur ; To this Ariovistus replied, 
that he might meet him when he pleased. Caes. In the oratio directa, this 
would be congredidris. So, Is ita cum Ccesdre agit, ne aut sucb magnopere 
virtuti tribueret, aut ipsos despiceret. Id. See § 273, 3. 

Rem. 2. A writer may state his own past words or thoughts in oratio 
obliqua, either preserving the first person, or adopting the third. 

Rem. 3. When the words or sentiments of a third person are stated in 
oratio obliqua, s^d and suus are commonly used in references made to him. 
See § 208, (1.) 

Rem. 4. The tenses to be used in changing the oratio directa into the 
obliqua, depend on the tense of the verb which introduces the quotation, 
according to the rule, § 258. But when the future perfect would be used 
in the direct, the pluperfect is necessary in the oblique form. 

Rem. 5. When the connected clause contains merely a descriptive 
circumstance, or expresses what is independent of the sentiment of the 
preceding clause, it takes the indicative : as, Imperdvit Alexander Lysippo, 
ut edrum equitum, qui apud Granicum cecidera^nt, face ret statuas ; Alexan- 
der ordered Lysippus to make statues of those horsemen who had fallen 
at the Granicus. Sometimes, in other cases, when it is evident from the 
sense, that the connected clause is an essential part of the proposition, the 
indicative is used, to avoid giving the appearance of contingency to the 
sentence. 

3. A clause connected to another by a relative or causal 
conjunction, takes the subjunctive, (whatever be the mood 



SYNTAX IMPERATIVE MOOD. 237 

of the preceding verb,) when it contains not the senti- 
ment or allegation of the writer, but that of some other 
person alluded to ; as, 

Socrates accusdtus est, quod corrumperet juventutem ; Socrates was ac- 
cused, because (as was alleged) he corrupted the youth. Deum invocd- 
bantj cujus ad soleune venissent ; They invoked the god, to whose solem- 
nities they had come. Liv. Here the charge of corrupting the youth is 
not made by the writer, but by the accusers of Socrates. So, in the second 
example, the worshippers allege that they have come to attend upon the 
solemnities of the god. The indicative, in such cases, would render the 
writer responsible for the truth of the allegation. 

In the preceding cases, it is not directly said that the sentiments are 
those of another than the writer. In Cicero, however, the words dico^ 
puto, arhltror, and the like, are often construed in a similar manner ; as, 
Quum eriim, Hannibalis permissu, exisset de castris, rediit paulo post, qudd 

se ohlitum nescio quod diceret, because (as) he said, he had forgotten 

fiomething. Cic. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

^ 267. The imperative mood is used, in the second person, 
to express a command, an exhortation, or an entreaty ; as, 

Nosce te, Know thyself. Cic. Equant memento servdre mentem, Re- 
member to preserve an unruffled mind. Hor. Hue ades, Come hither. 
Virg. Pasce capellas, et potum pastas age, et inter agendum occursdre 
capro caveto. Id. 

The plural form in tote is rare ; as, Facitote. Ovid. Petitote. Id. 

The third person expresses only a command, and is chiefly 
used in enacting laws ; as, 

Virgines vestdles in urbe custodiunto ignem foci publici sempiternum, 
Cic. 

Remark 1. With the imperative^ not is expressed by we, 
and nor by neve ; as, 

Ne tanta animis assuescite hella. Virg. Ne crede colori. Id. Hominem 
mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve urito. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The present and perfect subjunctive are often used instead of 
the imperative, to express a command in a milder form, an exhortation, or 
an entreaty. See § 260, II., Rem. 6. Sometimes also the future indica- 
tive. See § 259, Rem. 1, (4.) 

Rem. 3. Sometimes, for the simple imperative, fac with the subjunc- 
tive is used ; as, Fac erudias. Instruct, or Take care to instruct. Cic. So 
noli with the infinitive, and cave with the subjunctive, with or without 
ne ; as, JS''oli putdre, Do not suppose. Cic. Cave existimes, Do not think. 
Id. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

<^ 268. The tenses of the infinitive denote respectively an 
action as present, past, or future, in reference to the time of 
the verbs with which they are connected; as, 



238 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Hoc facere possum , I am able to do this. Cic. Vidi nostros inimlcos 
cupere helium, I saw that our enemies were desiring war. Id. JS^ec gem- 
ere aeHd cessabit turtur ah ulmo, Nor shall the turtle dove cease to coo 
from the lofty elm. Virg. Victor em victce succubuisse queror, I com- 
plain that the victor has yielded to the vanquished. Ovid. Se a semhas 
audisse dicebant, They said that they had heard (it) from the old men. Cic. 
Audiet cives Sicuisse ferrum juventus, The youth will hear that the citizens 

have whetted the sword. Hor. Negat ^e^e verhum esse facturum, He 

declares that he is not about to speak. Cic. Postquam audierat noii datum 
ill Jilio uxor em sua, After he had heard that a wife would not be given to 
his son, Ter. Semper existimabitis nihil horum vos visuros fore, You will 
always suppose that you are to see none of these things. Cic. 

Remark 1. The present infinitive is sometimes used to denote a com- 
pleted action. This is the usual construction v»"ith memini ; but the 
expression denotes rather a recollection of the progress than of the com- 
pletion of the action ; as, Hoc me memini dicere, I remember 'iny saying 
this. Cic. Teucrum memini Sidona venire, I remember Teucer's coming 
to Sidon. Virg. 

So, also, with recordor ; — Recorder longt omnihus unuja anteferre De- 
mosthenem. Cic. 

When the action is spoken of simply as a fact, the perfect infinitive is 
used with memini; as, Meministi me ita distribuisse causam. Cic. 

Rem. 2. On the other hand, the perfect sometimes occurs where, in 
English, the present w^ould be used; as, Fratres tendentes Pelion imposu- 
isse OZ?//?ipo,.... endeavoring to place.... Hor. Magnuw. si pectore possit 
excussisse deum. Virg. 

Rem. 3. The present is also sometimes used for the future, especially 
when the verb has no future ; as, Desine fata deiim flecti sperare, Cease 
to hope that the fates of the gods will be changed. Virg. Progeniem 
Trojdno a sanguine duci audierat. Id. Cras mihi argentum dare dixit ji. e. 
se daturum esse. Ter. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the future infinitive, in both voices, futurum esse or 
fore, followed by ut and the subjunctive, is often used: the present and 
imperfect subjunctive, in such cases, denoting an unfinished, the perfect 
and pluperfect a finished, future action; as, JVunquam putdvi fore, ut sup- 
plex ad te venlrem ; I never supposed (that it would happen) that I should 
come a suppliant to you. Cic. Suspicor fore, ut infringatur hominum 
improhitas. Id. 

This construction is necessarily used, when the verb has either no future 
active participle, or no supine ; as, in such case, the regular future infini- 
tive cannot be formed. 

The perfect participle with /ore is also used to denote a future action in 
the passive voice; as. Qudd videret nomine pads helium involutum fore. 
Cic.^ 

Rem. 5. The periphrastic infinitive formed by the future active parti- 
ciple with fuisse^ denotes a future action contingent upon a condition 
which was not fulfilled; and, in the ap o do sis ol a conditional sentence, 
corresponds to the pluperfect subjunctive ; as, Jin censes me tantos lahores 
suscepturum fuisse, si iisdem finihus gloriam meam quihus vitam essem 
terminaturus ? Do you think that I should have undertaken so great labors 
if, &c. Cic. Ut perspicuum sit omnibus, nisi tanta acerbitas injuricefuisset, 
nunquam illos in eum locum progressuros fuisse,.... that they never would 
have come into that place. Id. 

Futurum fuisse, also, with ut and the subjunctive, is used in this sense : 



SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 239 

as, JVm nuncii essent alldti, ezistlmdbant plerique futurum fuisse, ut oppX' 

dum caperetur, that the town would have been taken. Caes. This form 

is necessary in the passive voice. 

Rem. 6. The perfect infinitive, like the past tenses of the indicative, 
sometimes corresponds to the pluperfect subjunctive in the apodosis of a 
conditional clause ; as, {Dixit) sibi vitamfilicesud cariorem fuisse, si liberce 
ac pudlccB vivere licitum fuisset ; (He said) that the life of his daughter 
had been dearer to him than his own, if it had been permitted.... Liv. 

This use of the perfect infinitive is necessary when the verb has no 
future participle ; as. Si tenuisset Stesichorus modum, videtur proximus 
(Emuldri Homerum potuisse; He seems to have been able, i. e. it seems 
that he would have been able, to rival Homer, if, &c. Quinct. 

<§) 269. The infinitive mood, in Latin, is often used, not indefinite- 
ly, but with a subject of its own in the accusative case. See § 239. 

The infinitive passive of a neuter verb, like the third person singular of 
that voice, is sometimes used without a subject; as, Vides toto properari 

litore, You see that haste is ma^e Virg. See § § 209, Rem. 3, (2), and 

239, Rem. 3. 

The present infinitive has sometimes, in narration, a subject in the 
nominative. See § 209, Rem. 5. 

The infinitive, either w^ith or w^ithout a subject-accusa- 
tive, may be the subject of a verb ; as, 

Ad rempublicani pertinet me conservari. It concerns the state that I 
should be preserved. Cic. Nunquam est utile peccare. To do wrong is 
never useful. Id. JEquwm est^peccdtis veniam poscentem reddere rursus. 
Hor. See §201, IV. 

Remark 1. In such constructions, when no subject is ex- 
pressed before the infinitive, an indefinite word for person or 
thing, or a reflexive pronoun, is commonly impHed. 

Thus, in the last two examples, as the propositions are true in their 
widest application to moral beings, aliquem may be understood before 
peccdre and reddere. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive is often the subject of a proposition when the 
substantive verb with an adjective forms the predicate, and also when 
the verb in the sentence is impersonal, or is used impersonally, either in. 
the active or passive voice ; as, Cui verba dare difficile est. Ter. Mendd- 
cent memorem esse oportet. Quinct. JVeque est te fallere cuiquam, sc. pote. 
Virg. JVon enim me hoc jam dicere pudebit. Cic. See § 209, Rem. 3, (5.) 

Rem. 3. The infinitive may itself be the subject of an infinitive ; as, 
Audio non licere cuiquam in nave capillos deponere. Ter. 

<5> 270. The infinitive, either vs^ith or without a subject- 
accusative, may depend upon a verb ; as, 

HcBc vitare cupimus, We desire to avoid this. Cic. Poetas omnino nan 
Conor attingere, I do not attempt to read the poets at all. Id. Sententiam 
valere cupierunt, They desired that the opinion should prevail. Id. Spero 
te valere, I hope that you are well. Id. 

Remark 1. The infinitive alone may also depend upon an 
adjective, and sometimes upon a noun j as, 



240 SYNTAX. -INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Dignus amari, Worthy to be loved. Virg. Audax omnia perpeti, Res- 
olute to endure every thing. Hor. Sollers ornare, Skilful to adorn. Ovid, 
Segnes solvere nodum. Hor. Indocilis pauperiem pati. Id. Lenis reclu- 
dere. Id. See § 213, Rem. 4, (1.) Tempus est hujus libri facere finem, 
It is time to finish this book. Nep. Iniit consilia reges tollere, He devised 
a plan to destroy the kings. Id. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive with the accusative sometimes stands uncon- 
nected, especially in vehement interrogations or exclamations; as, Meiie 
incepto desistere victam, nee posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem ? That I^ 

vanquished, should desist from my undertaking, nor be able ? Virg, 

Me miseruml te in tantas arumnas propter me incidisse ! Cic. 

So, in the oratio ohliqua, the v^ords signifying said, saying, &c., are 
often omitted ; as. Id facile efflci posse, sc. dixit. Nep. Quern signum 
dsiturum fugientibvs ? Curt. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, Ei provinciam JVu- 
midiam populus jussit, sc. dari. Sail. In the compound forms of the 
infinitive, esse and fuisse are commonly omitted ; as, Sed de ed re legdtos 
missuros dixerunt, sc. esse. Nep. 

^ 271. The infinitive without a subject is only used after 
certain verbs, especially such as denote desire, ability, inten- 
tion, or endeavor; as, 

Cupio, opto, volo, and its compounds ; possum, queoj nequeo, valeo ; 
cogito (to design), decerno (to determine), juro, conjuro, propono, statuo, 
and constituo (to determine), studeo (to intend) ; conor, pugno for conor, 
tendo, contendo, tento, &c. ; to which may be added audeo, consuesco, 
insuesco, coepi, debeo, desino, desisto, disco, doceoj duhito, habeo for possum 
or debeo, incipio, intermitto, nescio, paro, parco, j)'^^termitto, recuso, soleo, 
%ereor, and the passives audior, cogor, credor, dicor, existimor ,feror , negor, 
nuntior^ perhibeor, putor, trador, and xideor. 

The poets, also, use the infinitive after fuge and parce for noli, and 
sometimes after caveo, fugio, gaudeo, horreo, metuo, memlni, obliviscor, 
qucero, reformido, refugio, tempero, timeo, and some others. It is also 
used, in a few instances, after verbs of motion, to denote a purpose ; as, 
Introiit videre, He came in to see. Ter. Non te frangere persequor. Hor. 

Remark 1. Many of the verbs above enumerated, instead of the infin- 
itive, may be followed by the subjunctive with a conjunction ; and with 
some of them, this is the regular construction ; as, Sententiam ne diceret, 
recusdvit. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The passives in the above list may either be used personally, 
with the infinitive alone, or impersonally, followed by the accusative with 
the infinitive. The former construction is more common, especially with 
mdeor. Thus we may say. Mater Pausanice eo tempore vixisse dicitur, 
or Dicitur eo tempore matrem Pausanice vixisse ; The mother of Pausanias 

is said to have been living or. It is said that the mother of Pausanias 

was living Nep. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive vi^ithout a subject is used after a verb, 
only when it denotes an action or state of the subject of that 
verb. 

Sometimes, even when the subject remains the same, the infinitive 
takes a pronoun as its subject, especially after cupio, volo, malo, conor, and 
studeo ; as, Cupio me esse clementem. Cic. Omnis homines, qui sese stu- 
dent prsBstare ceteris animalibtis. Sail. 



SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 241 

<§) 272, The infinitive with the accusative depends on 
verbs and phrases which denote either the exercise of tlie 
senses or intellectual powers, or the communication of thought 
to others ; as, 

Videha.t, id sine 7'ege Persarumnon posse fieri ; He saw that that could 
not be done without the aid of the king of the Persians. Nep. Credunt 
se negligi, They beUeve themselves to be neglected. Ter. Ea te ex Uteris 
cognoscere arbitror, I suppose that you know those things by means of 
letters. Cic. Me in ejus pot estate dixi fore. Id. Affirmant milUum jacdre 
animos. Liv. Scepe venit ad aures mcas, te istud nimis crebrd dicere, satis 
te tihi vixisse. Id. Earn pugnam ad Perusiam pugndtam (esse), quidam 
auctores sunt. Liv. 

Remark 1. When ambiguity would arise from the subject and the 
object of the verb being both in the accusative, the passive infinitive is 
substituted for the active, by which means the subject is put in the abla- 
tive, or the accusative with per ; as, JVe fando quidem audltum est, cro- 
codilum violdtUM esse ah iEgyptio ; instead of ^gyptium crocodllum vio- 
Idsse. Cic. 

Rem. 2. After verbs of the above significations, the conjunction that, in 
English, is not represented in Latin by a corresponding conjunction, as ut 
or quod followed by the indicative or subjunctive; but, instead of that con- 
struction, the subject following that is put in the accusative, and its verb 
in the infinitive. 

Rem. 3. The infinitive with the accusative is sometimes 
translated by a similar form in English, but usually either by 
the indicative or potential, according to its connection ; as, 

Te tud virtute frui cupimus ; We wish you to enjoy, or that you may 
enjoy.... Cic. Mirer te ad me nihil scribere...that you do not write... Id. 
Audierat non datum in filio uxorem suo....iha.t she would not be given.... 
Ter. 

Rem. 4. As the present infinitive denotes unfinished action, and relates 
to the time of the verb on which it depends, it expresses unfinished past 
action, and corresponds to the imperfect indicative, when with an accusa- 
tive it follows a past tense ; as. Dixit Ccesdrem facere. He said that Caesar 
was doing. Caes. In like manner the perfect infinitive with an accusative 
after a past tense corresponds to the pluperfect indicative ; as. Dixit 
Ccesdrem fecisse, He said that Caesar had done. 

Rem. 5, The present infinitive after verbs of sense, is often 
equivalent to the present participle ; as, 

Surgere videt lunam, He sees the moon (to rise) rising. Virg. Mrina 
rutilare vident. Id. Videhis collucere faces. Id. JYec Zephyros audis 
spirare ? Do you not hear the zephyrs blowing ^ Id. Scepe hoc majores 
natu dicere a.udivi. Cic. 

In the following example, the infinitive and present participle are used 
in the same construction : — Medium video discedere codum palantes/77/c 
polo Stellas. Virg. 

^ 273. When the particle that, in English, introduces a 
clause denoting a purpose, object, or result, it is a sign of the 
subjunctive in Latin, and is to be expressed by ut, &lc. (see 
§262); but otherwise it is usually the sign of the accusative 
with the infinitive. 
21 



242 



SYNTAX. INFINITIVE MOOD. 



1. The subjunctive is commonly used after verbs of endeav^ 
oring, aiming, and accomplishing. 

Such are facio, efficio, perjicio, studeo ; id, hoc or illud ago ; operam do^ 
medttoi', euro, in animum induco, consilium capio, nitor, contendo, video (to 
take care), nihil antiquius habeo quam, Slc; as, Eloquentid perfecit, lU 
auxilio sociorum Lacedcemonii privarentur. Nep. 

Facio with ut and the subjunctive is also used as a periphrasis for the 
indicative ; as, Invitus quidem feci, ut L. Flaminium e senatu ejicerem, for 
invitus cjeci. Cic. 

Facia, when used of a writer, in the sense of introduces or represents j 
is sometimes joined with a participle ; as, Lcelium et Scipionem facimus 
admirantes. Cic. Efficio, in the sense of proving, takes an infinitive , as, 
DiccBarchus vult efficere animos esse mortdles. Id. 

2. Verbs signifying to request, to demand, to admonish, to 
advise, to commission, to encourage, to command, and the like, 
when the purpose of the request, &;C., is to be expressed, usu- 
ally take after them the subjunctive with ut or ne ; as, 

Te nan hortor solum sed etiam oro, ut totd mente in rempublicam incum- 
bas. Cic. Monet, ut suspiciones vitet. Cass. Voluseno mandat, ut ad se 
revertatur. Id, 

Kuntio, scribo, and even dico, are followed by the subjunctive, when 
the)^ imply an injunction or intention that something should be done ; as, 
HcEC nunc non ut facias, scd ut te facere et fecisse gaudeas, scribo. Cic. 
Misit qui diceret, ne discederet. Nep. 

Jubeo commonly takes the accusative with the infinitive, but sometimes 
the subjunctive, especially when used absolutely, or without the person 
being expressed to whom the command is given ; as, Jubete istos exire 
foras. Ter. Sivejubebat ut facerem quid. Hor. 

3. In the oratio ohiiqua, the construction of the accusative 
with the infinitive, is exchanged for that of the subjunctive, to 
denote possibility, liberty, or duty ; as, 

Virginius unum Ap. Claudium legum expertem esse aiebat : respicerent 
tribunal homines castellum omnium scelerum. Liv. 

On the contrary, when the subjunctive has been used, after a verb of 
asking, commanding, &c., the construction often passes into that of the 
accusative with the infinitive ; as, Ordbat ne se ut parricidam Kheruni 
aversarentur : sibi mi^xnfilice sud cariorem fuisse si .... Liv. See § 266, 2 
Rem. 1. 

4. Verbs which denote willingness, unwillingness, permission, 
and necessity, commonly take the accusative and infinitive, but 
sometimes the subjunctive. 

Such are volo, nolo, malo, opto, permitto, patior, sine, licet, oportet, and 
necesse est; as, Optavit ut in currum patris tolleretur. Cic. Quis Antonio 
permlsit, ut partes faceret ^ Id. 

An infinitive passive without a subject, is sometimes used with oportet ; 
as, JVon oportuit relictas, sc. esse ancillas, Ter. Ut ut era^, mansum tamen 
oportuit, sc. esse. Id. Kon putdbant de tali viro suspicionibus oportere 
judicari. Nep. 

Some other verbs which regularly take the accusative with the infinitive 
after them, are occasionally followed by the subjunctive. 



SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 243 

5. After verbs denoting joy or grief, surprise or loonder, either 
the accusative with the infinitive, or qudd with the indicative or 
subjunctive, may follow. 

Such are gaudeo, detector, gratum est mild, doleo, angor, indignor, miror; 
as, Angor amino non armis egere rempublicam. Cic. Gaudeo tibl jucurt- 
das meas esse hteras. Id. Gaudeo quod te interpellavi. Id. 

After doleo, gaudeo, and other neuter verbs, the clause containing the 
accusative with the infinitive is not the object of the verb, but of some 
preposition understood, s.s propter, &c. See § 232, (2.) 

6. The particle that, in Englishj is represented in Latin by qudd^ when a 
demonstrative pronoun, as hoc, illud, istud, &c., precedes, or is to be sup- 
plied. In such case, quod is followed by the indicative ; as, lilud quoque 
nobis accedit incominodum, quod M. Junius hoc tempore abest. Cic. 

Quod, in the beginning of a sentence, in the sense of as ^o, especially in 
the epistolary style, is followed by an indicative. See § 206, (14.) Qudd 
(that) is generally explanatory, or denotes a cause ; ut (that)^ a purpose 
or result. 

Note. The construction of the infinitive resembles that of 
a noun in the singular number and neuter gender. 

Thus, like a noun, it may have an adjective or pronoun agreeing with 
it; as, Totum hoc philosophari displicet. Cic. See § 205, Rem. 8. 

It may be followed by a limiting genitive ; as, Cujus non dimicare fuit 
vincere. Val. Max. 

It may be either the subject or object of a verb. See § § 209, Rem. 3, 
(5,) and 229, Rem. 5. It may also be used after neuter verbs, like an ac- 
cusative, depending on a preposition understood; as, Te accepisse meas 
literas gaudeo. Ter. See § § 232, (2,) and 273, 5. 

It is also used like a predicate-nominative; as, Videre est perspicere 
aliquid. Cic. See § 210. 

It may, like a genitive, limit the signification of an adjective or noun. 
See § 270, Rem. 1. 

It may, like an accusative, depend on a preposition ; as, Prceter plorare, 
Hor. See § 235. 

It is used also like an ablative ; as, Audita regem in Siciliam tendere. 
Sail. 

It sometimes, also, denotes a purpose, like a participle in dv^; as, Lorl- 
earn donat habere viro. Virg. 



PARTICIPLES. 

<§) 274. 1. Participles are followed by the sanie cases 
as their verbs ; as, 

Quidam, poeta nomindtus ; A certain one, called a poet. Cic. CatulO- 
rum oblita lecena, The lioness forgetful of her whelps. Virg. Faventes 
rebus Carthaginiensium, Favoring the interests of the Carthaginians. Liv. 
Tendens ad sidera palmas. Virg. Accusdtus rei capitdlis. Cic. Omina 
doctus. Stat. Casus abies visura marinos. Id. Carituri arbore montes. 
Ovid, Parcendum est teneris. Juv. Utendum est aetate. Ovid. 

2. The present, perfect, and future active participles, denote 
respectively an action which is present, past, or future, in refer- 



244 SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. 

ence to the time of the verb with which they are connected ; 
as, 

Simul hoc dicens attollit se. Virg. Turn ad Thraseam in liostes agentem 
missus est. Id. Turnum fugientem hcBc terra videhit. Id. Qui missus ab- 
Argis Raid consederat urhe. Id. Lamia munere atdilitdtis perfunctus, petit 
prcBturam. Cic. JusssiscumjidepcBnasluam. Hor. Juvenis m,€ dies mon- 
turus in hostes irruit. Virg. Periturus injecit sese in agmen. Id. Ilia tibi 
Ventura hella expediet. Id. 

Remark 1. The present participle sometimes denotes that which is 
about to be done ; as, Inter cliisit hiems, et terruit Jlu^ter euntes, .... as they 
were on the point of going. Virg. 

Rem. 2. The present participle, also, sometimes denotes a purpose ; as^ 
Cunctis nam lecti navihus ibant, orantes veniarn, et templum clamor c pete- 
bantj .... to sue for favor.... Id. 

Rem. 3. The perfect participle passive often denotes the result of a 
past action, and thus supplies the place of a present participle passive ; as, 
Kotus evolat piced tectus caUgine .... covered with pitchy darkness. Ovid. 

Rem. 4. Habeo, with perfect participles denoting knowledge and deter- 
mination, forms a periphrasis, instead of the verb of the participle ; as, 
Clodii animum perspectum habeo, cognitum, judicatum ; for perspexi, &c. 
Cic. Do, euro, a,nd facto, are sometimes so construed with participles ; as, 
Missam iramfaciet, for mittet. Ter. 

Rem. 5. The perfect passive participle is sometimes used to supply the 
place of a verbal noun in io or us i as, Ante Romam conditam. Before the 
building of Rome. Cic. Post genus hominum natum. Id, Post sacra 
constituta. Id. 

Rem. 6. The future active participle often denotes inten- 
tion or purpose ; as, 

Ad Jovem Hammonem per git consulturus de origine sud ; He goes to 
Jupiter Ammon, to consult him about his origin. Just. 

Rem. 7. The participle in dus, also, denotes a purpose, when 
joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to 
have, to receive, to undertalie, &lc. 

Such are do, trade, trihuo, attribuo, Tnando, mitto, conduco, loco, habeo, 
accipio, suscipio, relinquo, euro, deposco, rogo ; as, Testamentum tibi tradit 
legendum, He delivers his will to you to read. Hor. Attribuit nos truci- 
dandos Cethego. Cic. Quod utendum acceperis, reddito. Id. 

Rem. 8. The participle in dus, when agreeing with the sub- 
ject of a sentence, has the signification of necessity or propri- 
ety ; sometimes, though rarely, except in later writers, that of 
possibility ; as, 

IsYeneYa.ndusanobis et colendus est. He should be worshipped and 
honored by us. Cic. Delenda est Carthago, Carthage must be destroyed. 
Cato. HcBc speranda fuerunt. Virg. So with est used impersonally ; as, 
Utr 11771 pace nobis an bello esset utendum. Cic. 

Sometimes, also, when not agreeing with the subject of a sentence, it 
has this signification ; as, Facta narrabas dissimulanda tibi. You were 
relating facts which you should have concealed. Ovid. A. L. Bruto prin^ 
clpe hujus maxime conservandi generis et nominis. Cic» 



SYNTAX. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 245 

Rem. 9. The participle in dus, in its oblique cases, supplies the jilace 
of a present participle of the passive voice, to denote a continued or in- 
complete action. See § 275, II. 

For the dative of the agent after participles in dus^ see § 225, III. 

3. Participles are often employed instead of conditional, ex- 
planatory, adversative, and other dependent clauses ; as, 

Curio, ad focum sedenti (as he was sitting) jnagnum auri pondus Sam- 
nites attuUrunt. Cic. Tridui viam progressi, rursus i-everterunt, for, cum 
progressi essent. Cses. Phtra locuiuros abve nos jv^sit, ....when we weve 
going to say more. 

If the participle refers to a noun not contained in the leading proposi- 
tion, it is put with that noun in the ablative absolute. See § 257. 

Note. In many cases, for want of a perfect participle active, and a 
present participle passive, this construction cannot be used. Thus, quum 
amavisset cannot be exchanged for a participle corresponding with the 
English having loved. As the perfect participles of deponent verbs, how- 
ever, have an active signification, they admit of the participial construc- 
tion. The want of a perfect active participle may also be supplied by the 
perfect passive participle in the ablative absolute. See § 257, Rem. 5. 



GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 

<5) 275. L Gerunds are followed by the sanne cases as 
their verbs ; as, 

Metus parendi sibi, Fear of obeying him. Sail. Parcendo victis, By 
sparing the vanquished. Liv. Efferor studio patres vestros videndi, I a,m 
transported with a desire of seeing your fathers. Cic. Petervdi consulatum 
gratid. Sail. Venit ad recipiendum pecunias. Varr. 

Remark 1. The gerund is the same in form as the oblique cases of the 
neuter singular of participles in dus, but it has the meaning of the active 
voice. It is sometimes translated by the present participle with a prepo- 
sition, and sometimes by an infinitive active ; as. Consilium LacedcBmonem 
occupandi ; A design of occupying, or to occupy, Lacedeemon. Liv. 

Rem. 2. The gerund is sometimes, though rarely, used in a passive 
sense ; as, Spes restituendi nulla erat, .... of being restored. Nep. Mhenas 
erudiendi gratid missus , ....for the purpose of being instructed. Just. 
^nte domandum. Virg. 

Rem. 3. As the infinitive is used as the subject or object of a verb, so 
the gerund supplies the genitive, dative, ablative, and, after a preposi- 
tion, the accusative, of a verbal noun of similar meaning. 

II. Instead of the gerund of an active verb v^'ith its ob- 
ject in the accusative, the participle in dus is often used, 
the object taking the case in which the gerund would have 
been, and the participle agreeing with it ; as, 

Consilia urbis delendae (Cic), for urbem delendi, Plans for destroying 
the city. Reparandarum classium causd (Suet.), for reparandi classes. 
Perpetiendo labori idoneus. Colum. M defendendam Romam ab oppug- 
nandd Capu^ duces Romdnos abstrahere. Liv. 

21* 



~lO SYXTAX. GERr:>DS A^'D GERUXBIVE5. 

Remark 1. The same construction is used with the future passive 
T^articiples of utcr.fruGv.fungor. and potior^ as these verbs were originally 
followed by the accusative; cls. ^^tas ad hdc utenda idonea. Terr Jus- 
titicB fruendse causa. Cic. In omni munere fungendo. Id. 

Rem. 2. When a participle is thus used for a gerund, it is called a 
gerundive, and is usually translated like a oferund. The gerundive cannot 
be substituted for the gerund, where ambiguity would arise from the gen- 
der not being distinguishable. It should not be used when the object of 
the gerund is a neuter pronoun or adjective : as. Aliqmd faciendi ratio 
(Cic.) J not alicujus. .irtem et vera et falsa dijudicandi (Id ), not verorum 
d'judicandorum. 

III. Examples of the construction of gerunds, in each of their cases^ 
Iiaveheen already given, among other nouns, under the heads Genitive, Da- 
tive, Accusative, and Ablative. The following remarks specify in what con- 
nections they are used : — 

Remark 1. The genitive of gerunds and gerundives may 
follow either nouns or adjectives ; as, 

Amor halendi. Cic. Patriam spes videndi, Virg. JS'am habet natura^ 
ut alidrurn omnium rerum, sic vivendi modum. Cic. Barbara consuctudo 

homijunn immolandorum. Id. J'^enandi studiosi. Cic. Certus eundi. 

Virg. Iiisuetus navigandi. Caes. Peritus civitdtis regendcE. Nep. 

(1.) The nouns af^er which these genitives most frequently occur are, 
amor, ars, causa, consilium, consuetude, cupiditas, facultas, gratia, locuSj 
Ucentia, modus, occasio, otium, potestas, spes, studimn, tempus, veniaj vis, 
voluntas. 

(2.) The adjectives which most frequently take afler them these geni- 
tives, are such as denote desire, knowledge, remembrance, and their contra- 
ries ; as. cupidus. studiosus. peritus. imperitus. insuetus. certus. rudis. &c. 
See § -213, Rem. i, (3.) 

(3.) The genitive plural sometimes depends upon a gerund in di, instead 
of being joined with the gerundive ; a.s, Facultas agrorum condonandi. Cic. 
yominandi istorum erit copia. Plant. In castra tenerunt sui purgandi 
causa. Cses. This construction is most common with pronouns. 

(4.) The gerund in di. for the gerundive, is sometimes found also with 
pronouns of the singular number and feminine gender: as, Quoni-am tui 
videndi est copia. Plant. Ego ejus videndi cupidus recto consequor. Ter. 
In these examples, tui and ejus are feminine. 

(5.) The gerund and gerundive, afler the verb sum, are sometimes 
found in the genitive denoting a tendency, without any noun or adjective 
on which they can depend ; as, Reginm imperium initio conservandae 
iibertatis fuerat. Sail. Causa or gratia may sometimes be supplied. In 
some other cases, the word on which the gerund in di depends is not ex- 
pressed ;. as. Majieat provincialibus potentiam suam tali modo ostentandi, 
sc. facultas. Tac. Ciim habe rem in animo iia.\ig^ndi,sc. propositum. Cic. 

Rem. 2. The dative of gerunds and gerundives is used ~ 
especially after adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and 
'also after verbs, to denote a purpose ; as, 

Cliarta emporttica est inutilis scribendo. Plin. Capessendre reipublica 
habilis. Tac. Ut nee triumviri accipiundo.Tzer scribe referundo sufficerent. 
Liv. Locum oppido condendo capers. Id. 

(1.) The verbs and phrases upon which this dative most frequently de- 



SYNTAX. SUPINES. 247 

pends are, studeo ; intentits sum ; impendo, consumo or insumo, tempus ; 
operavi do, dcsiitn, sum (signifying to serve for, to be adequate to),facio, and 
sujlcio. 

The dative after sum is usually supposed to depend on an adjective un- 
derstood. See § t>27, Rem. 3. 

(2.) The dative of the gerundive, denoting a purpose, is also used after 
names of office ; as. Decemviri legibus scribendis. Liv. So, Comitia ere- 
andis decemvTris. Id. 

(3.) A purpose is more commonly expressed by ad and the accusative, 
than by the dative ; as, Pecus ad vescendum homlnlhus apta. Cic. 

(4.) Instead of the gerund or gerundive after adjectives, the poets some- 
times use the infinitive, in imitation of the Greek construction ; as, Audax 
omnia perpeti, i. e. ad omnia perpetienda. Hor. See § 270, Rem. 1. 

Rem. 3. The accusative of gerunds and gerundives follows 
the prepositions ad or inter, and sometimes ante, circa, or oh ; 
as, 

.^d poenitendum properat, qui citd judicat. Pub. Syr. Inter bibendum. 
While drinking. Just. Ad castra facie nda. Cic. Ob absoJvcndum. Id, 

Rem. 4. The ablative of gerunds and gerundives follows 
the prepositions a, ah, de, e, ex, or in; or it is used without a 
preposition, as the ablative of cause, manner, means, or instru- 
ment ; as, 

Aristotelem non deter ruit vl s,cx\hendiO. Cic. Ex assentando. Ter, Non 
t?i6^cor a defendendis hoxmnlhns disc edere. Cic. Cre^cz^ e undo. Virg. Rem 
qumrunt mercaturis faciendis. Cic. Orationem Latinam legendis nostris 
efficies pleniorem. Id. 

This ablative also occurs, though rarely, after pro and cum; 0.3, Pro 
T^apulando. Plant. Cum loquendo. Quinct. 



SUPINES. 

^ 276. I. Supines in um are followed by the same 
cases as their verbs ; as, 

J^on Graiis scrvitum matribus ibo, I shall not go to serve Grecian 
matrons. Virg. Eurypylum cildtum oracula Phoebi mittimus, We send 
Eurypylus to consult the oracle of Apollo. Id. 

II. Supines in um follow verbs of motion, and serve 
to denote the purpose of the motion ; as, 

Te id admonitum vcnio. Plant. Cubitum discesslmu^. Cic. Ire dejec- 
tum mo num,enta regis. Hor. So after participles; as, Patriam defensum 
revocdtus. Nep. Spectatum admissi. Hor. 

Remark 1. Supines in um sometimes follow verbs which do not ex- 
press motion ; as. Do filiam nuptum. Ter. Vosultum injurias hortor. Sail. 

Rem. 2. The supine in um with eo often forms a periphrasis equiva- 
lent to the same mood and tense of the verb from which the supine is 
formed ; as, JVe bonos omnes perditum eant (Sail.), for perdant. Ereptum 
€urU (Id.), for eripiunt. Ultum ivit (Tac), for ultus est. 



249 SYNTAX.— SUPINES* 

Rem. 3. The supine in um most frequently occurs with the infinitive 
iri, with which it forms the future infinitive passive ; as. Brutum visum 
iri a me puto. Cic. In this construction the accusative properly depends 
upon the supine, and iri is used impersonally; thuSj '^ I suppose (that it 
is going by me), i. e. that I am going to see Brutus." 

Rem. 4. Instead of the supine in um after a verb of motion, a gerund 
or gerundive in the accusative with ad, or in the genitive with causa or 
gratia, also the subjunctive with ut or qui, and a present or future partici- 
ple active, may be used to express a purpose. For the gerund and gerun- 
dive, see § 275) for the subjunctive with ut, § 262, — with qui, § 264 ; and 
for participles, § 274. 

The infinitive, also, is sometimes used by the poets, instead of the 
supine, to express a purpose. See § 271. 

III. The supine in u is used to limit the meaning of 
adjectives signifying wonderful, agreeable, easy or difficulty 
worthy or unworthy, honorable or base, and a few others ; 

as, 

Mirabile dictu ! Wonderful to tell, or to be told ! Virg. Jucundum cog- 
nltu atque auditu. Pleasant to be known and heard. Cic. Res factu facilis , 
A thing easy to be done. Ter. Locus aditu difficilis. Sail. Turpia 
dictu. Cic. Optimum factu. Id. 

Remark 1. The principal adjectives after which the supine in u occurs, 
are affabilis, arduus, asper, bonus, di gnus ,indignus , facilis , difficilis, fcedus, 
gravis, honestus, horrendus, incredihilis, jucimdus, injucundus, memorabilis, 
pulcher, rarus, turyis, and utilis. 

Rem. 2. The supine in u is used also after the nouns y<^5, 
nefas, and opus ; as, 

Hoc fas est dictu. Cic. Kef as dictu. Ovid. Dictu opus est. Ter. 

Rem. 3. As the supine in u is commonly translated by a passive form, 
it is placed under the passive voice. In many cases, however, it may 
with equal or greater propriety be translated actively. It seems not to 
differ in its nature from other verbal nouns in w5,of the fourth declension. 
In the expressions, Obsondtu redeo (Plaut.), Cuhitu surgat (Cato), oh- 
sondtu and cubitu, though following verbs, are by some considered as 
supines, by others as nouns depending on a preposition understood. 

The supine in u, even when it follows adjectives, might, as a verbal 
noun, be referred to § 250. 

Rem. 4. Instead of the supine in u, an infinitive, a gerund or gerun- 
dive with nd, or a verbal noun in the ablative, and sometimes in the 
dative or accusative, may be used ; as, Ardua imitdtu, ceterum cognosci 
utilia. Val. Max. Ulud autem facile ad credendum est. Cic. Opus pro- 
scriptione dignum. Plin. Aqua potui jucunda. Id. Facilior ad intellec- 
tum atque imitationem. Quinct. 

The construction with ad and the gerund, or with sum and the infini* 
live, is used by the best writers Rfter facilis , difficilis, ^ndjucundus. Thf 
most common construction of dignus is with qui and the subjunctive 
See §264, 9. 



SYNTAX. ADVERBS. 249 



ADVERBS. 



<§) 277« Adverbs modify or limit the meaning of verbs, 
adjectives, and sometimes of other adverbs ; as, 

Bene mones, You advise well. Ter. Fortissimo urgentes. Most vigor- 
ously pressing on. Plin. MalO narrando. Ter. Longh dissimilis. Cic. 
Valdt bent. Id. 

Remark 1. Adverbs sometimes, also, modify nouns; as, 
Homerus pland orator. Cic. Admodum puella. Liv. JYihil admodum, 
Cic. 

Rem. 2. Adverbs may also modify adjective pronouns, and 
prepositions ; as, 

Planh noster. Cic. Paulo ultra eum locum. Caes. 

Rem. 3. A negative adverb, modifying another negative 
word, destroys the negation ; as^ 

J\^on parere noluit, He was not unwilling to obey, Nep. Haud igndra 
malif Not ignorant of evil. Virg. Nee verd non omni suppUcio digni. Cic. 
Haud nihil est, It is something. Ter. So, nonnulli, some ; nonnunquam^ 
sometimes. 

Rem. 4. When the subject and predicate of a proposition^ 
are both modified by negative words, the proposition is affirm- 
ative ; as, 

JVemo non videt, Every one sees. Cic. So, if both the antecedent and 
the predicate of a relative clause are negative, the proposition is affirma- 
tive ; as, JVemo est, qui nesciat ; Every body knows. Cic. 

Rem. 5. Two negatives, however, though connected as above speci- 
fied, sometimes strengthen the negation ; as, Neque tile haud objiciet mihi. 
Plant. Jura te non nociturum homini nemini. Id. Especially are neque^ 
nee, and sometimes non, thus used after a negative, instead of aut or vel ; 
as, Non me carmimbus vincet, nee Orpheus, nee Linus. Virg. Neminem, 
non re, non verbo, non vultti denique offendi. Cic. Nullius rei neque prces^ 
neque manceps f actus est. Nep. 

Rem. 6. Non is sometimes omitted after non modo or non 
solum, when followed, in a subsequent clause, by ne quidem ; as, 

Mihi non modo irasci, sed ne dolere quidem impune licet, .... not only not 
to be angry, but.... Cic. Cum senatui non solum juvdre rempublicam, sed 
ne lugere quidem liceret. Id. 

JVon is also rarely omitted after no7i modo when followed by sed or verum 
with etiam ; as, Qui non modo eafutura timet, veriim etiamfert, sustinetque 
proBsentia; Who not only does not fear.... Cic. 

Rem. 7. Facilh, in the sense of undoubtedly, clearly, is joined to super- 
latives, and words of similar import ; as, Vir unus totius Grcecice facile 
doctissimus. Cic. Homo regidnis illius virtute facile princeps. Id. 

Rem. 8. Adverbs are sometimes equivalent to phrases con> 
taining an antecedent and a relative, both of which would be 
in an oblique case. 



250 SYNTAX.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

When thus resolved, the antecedent will be found to modify some word 
in its own clause, and the relative to serve both as a connective for a sub- 
sequent clause, and a modifier of some word contained in it. Hence, 
such adverb serves the threefold purpose of a connective and a double 
modifier; as, 

Ed postquam CcBsar pervcnit, obsides poposcit ; After Caesar came thither, 
he demanded hostages (Cags.) ; i. e. Obsides poposcit post id tempus, in quo 
€0 pervenit; He demanded hostages after the time at which he came thitlier; 
where post id tempus modifies poposcit, and in quo serves as a connective, 
and also modifies pervenit. 

Frequently, for greater precision, an additional adverb is introduced, 
which, in the resolution of the phrase, stands in, and sometimes supplies, 
the antecedent clause ; as, Ed postquam pervenit, tum obsides poposcit, .... 
then he demanded hostages; i. e. Obsides poposcit tempore, ^05^ id tempus 
in quo eb pervenit; He demanded hostages at a time subsequent to the time 
at which he came thither. So, Cum venit calamitas, tum detrimentum accip- 
itur (Cic), i. e. Detrimentum eo tempore accipitur, in quo vejiit calamitas. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

<§> 278. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, and 
some others, connect words which are in the same con- 
struction. 

Words are in the same construction, when they stand in the same rela- 
tion to some other word or words in the sentence. Hence conjunctions 
connect the same cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, the same moods 
of verbs, and adverbs and prepositions relating to the same word ; as, 

Pulvis et umbra sumus, We are dust and shade. Hor. Si tu et Tullia 
valetis, ego et Cicero valemiLS. Cic. Aggere jacto turribus^wc constitutis. 
Caes. Clarus et honoratus vir, An illustrious and honorable man. Id. 
Ccesar Remos cohortatus, liberaliterque oratione prosecutus. Css. Pater 
tuus, quem colui et dilexi. Cic. Ciim triumphum egeris, censorqve fueris, 
et obieris legdtus. Id. Ciivi ad oppidum accessisset, castrdque ibi poneret. 
Caes. Ades animo, et omitte timorem. Cic. Ea videre ac perspicere 
potestis. Id. Graviter et copiose dixisse dicitur. Id. Cum fratre an sine. 
Id. 

Remark 1. This rule includes the copulative conjunctions ac, atque, 
et, etiam, que, nee, neque, the disjunctives aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, neve, neu, 
and also quam, prceterquam, nisi, an, nempe, quaw.vis, nedum, sed, uutem, 
veriim, and, in general, such as, when used to connect clauses, do not im- 
ply a dependence of the following upon the preceding clause. To these 
may be added the adverbs of likeness, ceu, tanquam, quasi, ut, &c. ; as, 
J^ec census, nee clarum nomen avorum, sed probitas magnos ingeniumque 
facit. Ovid. Philosophi negant quenquam virum bonum esse, nisi sapien- 
tem. Cic. Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur. Id. 

Rem. 2. Words thus connected are sometimes in different cases, 
though in the same construction ; as, Mea et reipublicae interest. Cic. 
(See § 219.) Sive es Romae, sive in Epiro. Id. (See § § 221 and 254.) In 
Mettii descendat judicis aures, et patris et nostras. Hor. See § 211, Rem. 3. 

Rem. 3. The above conjunctions connect not only single 
words, but clauses whose construction is the same ; that is^ 



SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 251 

whose subjects are in the same case, and their verbs in the 
same mood ; as, 

Concidunt vend, fug luntque nuhes ; The winds subside, and the clouds 
disperse. Hor. Locum, quern et non coquit sol, et tangit ros. Varr. Ludi 
decern per dies facti sunt, neque res ulla prcetermissa est. Cic. Vides, ut 
altd stet nive candidum Soracte, nee jam sustineant onus silvae lahorantes, 
geluque flumina constiterint acuto. Hor. InteUigltis et animum ei prcesto 
fuisse, nee consilium defuisse. Cic. 

Rem. 4. As the subjunctive is often used for the imperative, they may 
be connected by the above conjunctions ; as, Disce nee invideas. Pers. 

Rem. 5. The indicative and subjunctive may also be thus connected, if 
the clause of the latter is not dependent; as, Nee satis scio, nee, si sciam^ 
dicere ausim. Liv. 

Rem. 6. The conjunction is often omitted ; as, Cui Romce domusjuxor, 
liber i, -procurator esset. Cic. Quce vitia sunt non senectutis, sed inertisy 
igndv(B, somniculosce senectutis. Id. Abiit, excessit, evdsit, erupit. Id. 

Rem. 7 Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions are often used, before 
each of two or more connected words or clauses, in order to mark the 
connection more forcibly ; as, ^t pecuniapersuddet, et gratia, et auctoritas 
dlcentis, et dignitas, et postremd aspectu^. Quinct. Hoc et turpe, nee 
tamen tutum. Cic. Neque nata est, et ceterna est. Id. Et tihi et mihi 
Toluj)tdtifore. Id. Res ipsa aut invitdhit aut dehortabitur . Id. 

In like manner nunc. ...nunc, simul....simul, partim....partim, qua. ...qua, 

tum turn,, cum. ...turn, are used before words or clauses. Tum....tum not 

only signify Jjoth and, but also at one time at another time. Cum 

turn generally give a greater emphasis to the latter word or clause, which 
is often increased by the addition of verb, certe, prcecipue, imprimis , 
maximh, &c. ; as, Luxui'ia, cum omni cetdti turpis, tum maxime senectuti 
foedissima. est, Cic. 

Rem. 8. To connect different names of the same person or thing, sive 
or seu, rather than aut or vel, is employed ; as, Mars sive Mavors. 

Rem. 9. Ac and atque signify as and than after adjectives and adverbs 

denoting similarity or dissimilarity; as, Similiter/ad^ac si me roges, as 

if you should ask me. Cic. Me colit seque atque patronum suum,....sis much 
as.... Id. Si aliter scribo ac sentio, If I write otherwise than I think. Id. 
nU sunt alio ingenio atque tu. Plant. 



ARRANGEMENT* 

I, OF WORDS. 

<§) 279. 1. in English, after connectives, are placed, first, the subject, 
and the words which modify or limit it ; next, the verb and its modifiers } 
then the object of the verb ; and last, prepositions, and the words depend- 
ing upon them. This is called the logical or natural order. 

2. In a Latin sentence, after connectives^ are placed, 
first, the subject and its modifiers ; then the oblique cases, 
and other words which depend upon or modify the verb ; 
and last of all, the verb. 



952 SYNTAX. ARKANGEMENT OF WORDS. 

This arrangement, however, though common, is by no means invariable, 
since it is a general rule, that the most enijihatic word in a sentence is to he 
placed first. 

3. Connectives generally stand at the beginning of a clause. 

The following connectives may stand either in the first or second place, 
and sometimes in the third : — equidem, ergo, etenim, etiam, ideo, igitur, ltd- 
que, licet, namque, quia, quamquam, quippe, quoniam, saltem, sed, tamen, 
ut, utpote, and some others. 

Autem, enhn, and verb (but), commonly occupy the second place, some- 
times the third ; as, Ille enim revocdtus resistere ccepit. Caes. Ego vero 
vellem, affuisses. Cic. The enclitics que, ne, ve, are usually subjoined to 
the first word in a clause. 

Quidem and quoque are subjoined to the emphatic word in a clause ) as, 
Verho ille reus erat, re quidem verb Oppiamcus. Cic. Me scilicet maxime, 
sed proxime ilium quoqne fefellissem. Id. 

In negative sentences, ne precedes, and quidem follows, the emphatic 
word ; as, Ne ad Catonem quidem provocdho. Cic. 

4. When a word is repeated in the same clause, so that one is opposed 
to, or distinguished from, the other, they must stand together ; as, Hom- 
ines hominibus maxime utiles esse possunt. Cic. Equites alii alio dilapsi 
sunt. Liv. 

5. Words used antithetically are also placed near each other ', as, Dum 
tacent, clamant. Cic. Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet. Id. 

6. Inquam and usually aio, introducing a quotation, follow one or more of 
the words quoted; as, '^ JVon nosti quid pater,'' inquit, '^ Chrysippus dicat.'' 
Hor. '' Quid,'' aio, '' tua crimina prodis ? " Ovid. 

7. Adjectives are commonly placed after their nouns, especially when any 
thing is dependent on them. When a noun is limited by another noun, 
as well as by an adjective, the adjective usually precedes both ; as, Ulla 
o^cii prcBcepta. Cic. Tuum erga dignitatem meam stadium. Id. 

Demonstratives, and the adjectives primus, medius, &c. (see § 205, 
Rem. 17), usually precede their nouns; as, Ea res. Cses. His ipsis ver- 
bis. Cic. Media nox. Cobs. Reliqua ^gyptus. Cic. 

8. Monosyllables are usually prefixed to longer words with which they 
are connected ; as, Vir clarisslmus. Cic. Vis tempestdtis. Caes. 

9. When nouns are put in apposition, the one which explains or defines 
the other is generally put last ; as, Marcus Tullius consul. Sail. Opes 
irritamenta malorum. Ovid. 

In the arrangement of names of persons, the prcenomen stands first, 
next the nomen, third the cognomen, and last the agnomen ; as, Publius 
Cornelius Scipio Africdnus, The prae nomen is usually denoted by a 
letter. 

10. Oblique cases precede the words upon which they de- 
pend, but they follow prepositions ; as, 

Populi Romdni laus est. Cic. Laudis avidi, pecuniae liberdles. Sail. 
Cunctis esto benignu^, nulli blandus, paucis familidris^ omnibus cequus. 

Sen. Monumentum agre perennius. Hor. Hanc tibi dono do. Ter. Ad 

meridiem spectans. Cic. Extra periculum. Id. 

Genitives depending upon neuter adjectives are commonly placed last ; 
as, Incerta fortuncB. Liv. JS^ec tibi plus cordis, sed minus oris inest. Ovid. 

When a noun which is governed by a preposition, is modified by other 
words which precede it, the preposition usually stands before the words by 



SYNTAX. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 253 

which the noan is modified ; as, A primd luce ad sextain koram. Liv. Ad 
privatum doldrem fuit luctuosum. Cic. Ad animi mei loitltiam. Id. 

Sometimes, however, the preposition comes between its noun and an 
adjective, or a genitive by which the noun is modified ; as, JYulld in re. 
Cic. Justis de causis. Id. Suos inter cequdles. Id. 

Per, in adjurations, is often separated by other words ; as, Per ego te deos 
oro. Ter. 

Tenus and versus follow their cases, and sometimes other prepositions, 
especially when joined with relative pronouns. 

11. Infinitives precede the verbs on which they depend ; as, 
Jugurtha, ubi eos Africd decessisse ratus est, neque propter loci naturam 

Ciriam armis expugnare possit, moBnia circumdat. Sail. Servire magis 
quam imperare parati estis. Id. 

12. A word which has the same relation to several words, either pre- 
cedes or follows them all ; as, Vir gravis et sapiens, Cic. Clarus et hono- 
rdtus vir. Id. 

13. Relatives are commonly placed after their antecedents, 
and as near to them as possible ; as, 

Qui sim, ex eo, quern ad te misi, cognosces. Sail. Literas ad te misi,per 
quas gratias tihi egi. Cic. 

14. Quisque is generally placed after se, suus, qui, ordinals and superla 
tives ; as, Suos qaisque debet tueri. Cic. Satis super que est sibi sudrum 
cuique rerum cura. Id. Severitas animadversionis infimo cuique gratis- 
slma. Id. Quisque very rarely begins a proposition. 

15. An adverb is usually placed immediately before the word which it 
qualifies; but if the same word is modified by the oblique case of a noun, 
the latter commonly follows the adverb ; as, Male parta male dilabuntur. 
Cic. JVihil tam asperitm neque tam difficile esse, quod non cupidissime 

facturi essent. Sail. Imperium facile iis artibus retinetur, quibus initio 

partum est. Id. Sed maxime adolescentium familiaj'itdtes appetebat. Id. 
Non tam in bellis et in proBliis, qukm in promissis etfide firmiorem. Cic. 

In some phrases, custom has established a certain order, which must be 
observed and imitated ; as, JVe quid respublica detrimenti capiat. Cic. 

16. Exceptions to the foregoing principles are very numerous. These 
may arise from a regard to the harmony of the sentence, from poetic 
license, or from the following rule, which sometimes modifies nearly all 
the preceding : — 

The emphatic word is placed before the word or words con- 
nected with it which are not emphatic. 

17. A sentence should not close like a hexameter verse, with a dactyl 
and spondee; as. Esse videtur ; nor, in general, with a monosyllable. 

18. Hiatus should be avoided ; that is, a word beginning with a vowel 
should not follow a word ending with a vowel. 

19. A concurrence of long words or long measures, — of short words or 
short measures, — of words beginning alike or ending alike,— should be 
avoided. 

22 



I 



254 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 



II. OF CLAUSES, 

^ S^oO. A compound sentence, in which the leading clause is 
divided by the insertion of one or more subordinate clauses, is called a 
period. 

1. In a regular period, the leading verb is placed at the end, 
and the subordinate clauses between the parts of the leading 
clause ; as, 

Pausanias, citm semianimis de templo eldtus esset, confestim animam 
efflavit ) Pausanias. when he had been carried out of the temple but just 
alive, immediately expired. Nep. Ego, si ah improbis et perditis civihus 
rempvhlicam teneri viderem, sicut et meis temporibus scimus, et nonnullis 
aliis accidisse accepimus, non modo prsemiis, quce apud me minimum valentf 
Bed ne periculis quidem compulsus ullis, quihus tamen moventur etiamfor- 
tissimi viri, ad eorum causam me adjungerem. Cic. 

2. If the verbs of the leading and dependent clauses have the same sub- 
ject, or the same word depending on them, they are commonly formed 
into a period; as, Antigonus, qu?^m adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque 
dimicdret, in proelio occisus est. Nep. 

So, also, when the word which depends on the verb of the leading 
clause is the subject of the dependent clause } as, Manlio, quum dictdtar 
fuisset, Marcus Pomponius tribtinus plebis diem dixit. Cic. 

3. When obscurity w^ould arise from separating the leading subject and 
verb by dependent words or clauses, they are often placed together at the 
beginning or end of the sentence ; as, Latae (sunt) deinde leges, non solum 
qucB regiii suspicione consulem absolverent, sed qucB adeo in contrarium 
terterent, ut populdrem etiam facer ent. Liv, 

The position of the leading verb is also often otherwise varied, from 
regard to emphasis, to avoid monotony, or to prevent its meeting with the 
verb of the last dependent clause. 

4. When one clause is interrupted by the introduction of another, the 
latter should be finished before the first is resumed. 

5. Clauses expressing a cause, a condition, a time^ or a comparison^ usu- 
ally precede the clauses to which they relate. 

6. A short clause usually stands before, rather than after a long one. 



ANALYSIS. 

<§> 281. The analysis of a proposition, or of a compound 
sentence, consists in dividing it into the several parts of which 
it is composed, and pointing out their mutual relations. 

In analyzing a proposition, it is first to be divided into its logical subject 
and predicate. See § § 200, 201, 202. 

If the logical subject consists of more than one word, its grammatical 
subject should be pointed out, and distinguished as simple or compound. 

When the grammatical subject is determined, the words -which modify 
or limit it should next be specified, and then the words which modi^ 
them, and so on, until the logical subject is exhausted. See § 201, III. 



SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 



255 



In analyzing the logical predicate, the grammatical predicate should 
first be mentioned, then the words which modify or limit it, and their 
modifiers, until the logical predicate is exhausted. See § 202. 

In analyzing a proposlttoji, the rules for the agreement and dependence 
of words should be given, and hkewise their various inflections. 

The analysis of a compound sentence requires, first, its resolution into its 
several component propositions; and, secondly, their analysis in the man- 
ner before mentioned. See § 203. 

In resolving a sentence into its component clauses, the participial con- 
structions equivalent to clauses should be mentioned, and ellipses supplied. 
See § 203, 5. ^ , , 

When the compound sentence is resolved, the connection of the clauses 
should be pointed out, and whether they are dependent or independent. 
See § 203, 2. In either case, the connective words, if any, should be 
mentioned, and the connection, if any exists, with the preceding sentence. 
See § 203, 4. When clauses are dependent, the relation in which they 
stand should be explained, the character of the connectives stated, and the 
rules for the moods of the verbs given. See § § 262—266 and 272, 273. 

The following are examples of the analysis of simple and compound 
sentences : — 

1. S(Bvius ventis agitdtur ingens pinus, The great pine is 
more violently shaken by the winds. Hon 

Ingens pinus is the logical subject ; saiviiis ventis agitatur is the logical 
predicate. . ^ 

The grammatical subject is pinus : this l« mediStd tj ingensr 

The grammatical predicate is agitdtur : this is modified by sceviits^ and 
ventis.^ 

Pinus is a common noun,^ of the second and fourth declension,* femi- 
nine gender,-^ and nominative case.^ 

Ingens is an adjective, of the third declension, and of one termination,'^ 
in the nominative case, feminine gender, agreeing with pinus} 

Agitdtur is an active * frequentative ^ verb, of the first conj. from agito, 
derived from ago [Name its principal parts], formed from the 1st root, 
[Give the formations of that root.] It is in the passive voice, indicative 
mood, present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with j!?m?/5."* 

ScBvius is an adverb, in the comparative degree, from scev^ or s<Bmter/* 
■derived from the adjective scbvus,^ modifying the verb agitdtur.^ 

Ventis is a common noun, of the second declension,^ masculine gen- 
der,'' in the plural number, ablative case.^ 

2. MitJiriddtes, dudrum et viginti gentium rex, totidem lin^ 
guis jura dixit; Mithridates, king of twenty-two nations, pro- 
nounced judicial decisions in as many languages. Plin. 

The logical subject is Mithridates dudrum et viginti gentium rex. 

The logical predicate is totidem Unguis jura dixit. 

The grammatical subject is Mithridates : this is modified by rex.^ Rex 
is limited by gentium,^ which is itself limited by dudrum and viginti,^ 
Et connects dudrum and viginti.^ 

I $187, II. I. 9 §38. «§ 201, III. a 

m^209. '•$46. &REM.r 

«§194. «$247. «§278. 

0$ 192, II. « $201,111. 1. 

P$277. "$201,111.2. 



201, III. 3. 


/ $ 29, 2. 


202, III. 3. 


^$201, IV. 3. 
^Ull. 


202, III. 2. 


26.' 


i ^ 205. 


99. 


fr $ 141, 1. 



256 SYNTAX. ^ANALYSIS. 

The grammatical predicate is dixit, which is limited by jura"" and lin- 
guisy°' and the latter by totidem. 

Mithriddtes is a proper noun,^ of the third declension,*^ masculine gen- 
der,'^ and nominative case. 

Rex is a common noun, 3d dec./ masc. gen.,^ in apposition with Mithri- 
ddtes/ 

Gentium is a com. noun., 3d dec.,^ fem. gen.,^ in the genitive plural,* 
limiting rex.^ 

Dudrum is a numeral adj., of the cardinal^ kind, in the genitive case, 
fem. gen., agreeing with gentium.'^ 

Et is a copulative conjunction." 

Viginti is a cardinal numeral adjective indeclinable,^ limiting gentium.^ 

Dixit is an active verb," of the third conjugation,^ from dico [Give the 
prmcipalparts],^ formed from the second root [Give the formations of that 
root], in the act. voice., ind. mood, perf. indefinite tense,** sing, num., 3d 
pers., agreeing with Mithriddtes.^ 

Jura, a com. noun, 3d dec.,^ neut. gen.," plur. num., ace. case, the ob- 
ject of dixit. '^ 

Linguis, a com. noun, 1st dec, fem. gen.,'^ plural num ., ablative case.* 

Totidem, an adj., indeclinable,^ in the plural number, limiting Unguis. 

3. Romana pubes, seddto tandem pavore, postquam ex tarn 
turhido die serena et tranquilla lux rediit, iihi vacuam sedem 
regiani vidit, etsl satis credehat patrihus, qui proxwii steterant, 
^"alllnl^ul ,Cuj,t]l,.]l p/CCdld ; t?J^en. velut orbitatis metu icta, 
moestum aliquamdiu silentium obtinuit. Liv. 

The preceding compound sentence constitutes a period," and it may be 
resolved into the following clauses : — 

1. Romana pubes tamen, velut orbitatis metu icta, mastum aliquamdiu 
silentium obtinuit, —Vy^hich is the leading clause."^" 

2. seddto tandem pavore, 

3. postquam ex tarn turhido die serena et tranquilla lux rediit, 

4. ubi vidit, 

5. vacuam (esse) sedem regiam, 

6. etsi satis credehat pati'ihus, 

7. qui proximi steterant, 

8. suhllmem raptum 'proceUa. 

In the preceding clauses, the predicates are printed in Italics. 

The grammatical subject of the leading clause is pubes, which is limited 
by Romana and icta. Icta is modified by velut and metu, which last is limit- 
ed by orbitatis. The grammatical predicate of that clause is ohtinuit - this 
is limited by aliquamdiu and silentium^ which is itself limited by nioBstum. 

Pw6e5, a collective noun,^^ 3d dec, ^'^ fem. gen.,^^ sing, num., nom. case. 

Romdna, a patriaP* adj., of the 1st and 2d dec,/-^ fem. gen., sing, num., 
nom, case, agreeing with puhes.^" 

Tamen, an adversative conj unction, ^^'i- relating to etsi in the 6th clause, 

«§202, III. 2. g^ll. w §198,1. «§76. y ^ 115. 3. ^^ § 62. 

i§26. ^§62. o^ui, ^^66. ^^280'. «« § 104. 

c^TS. i(^83. P§149. «|229. «« 1 203, 3. // ^ 105. 

di2S. * § 211. g § 158. '^ U 38, 41. *^ § 26, eg 1 205. 

M 78. ^ U 117, 118. r I 145, IV. ^ § 247. cc K 73^ m K 193^ 4, 
/§204. rni'205. « ^209. 



SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 257 

and denoting that the predicate of this clause is true, notwithstanding the 
concession made in that clause. 

Velut, an adverb, modifying icta."' 

Icta, a perf. part, pass., from the active verb ico, 3d conj.^ [Principal parts 
in both voices], fem. gen., sing, num., nom. case, agreeing with pubcs,^ 

Metu, an abstract noun,^ 4th dec.,* masc. gen., sing, num., abl. case./ 

Orbitdtis, an abstract*^ noun, derived from orbus^ 3d dec.,^ fem. gen.,* 
sing, num., gen. case, limiting metu} 

OblinuUj an active verb of the 2d conj.,* from obtineo^ compounded of 
prep, ob and tenco ^ [Give the principal parts, and the formations of the 
second root],"* in the active voice, ind. mood., perf. indef. tense, sing, 
num., 3d person, agreeing Wiih pubcs.^ 

Jlliquayndiu, an adverb, compounded of aliquis and diu,^ and limiting 
obtlnuit.^ 

Silentium, a com. noun, 2d dec, neut. gen.,^' sing, num., acc. case, the 
object of o^imm't^ 

MoBstum, an adj., 1st and 2d dec, neut. gen., sing num., acc. case, 
agreeing with silentlum.^ 

The 2d is a participial clause, equivalent to quum pavor tandem seddtus 
esset} 

Pavore, an abstract^ verbal " noun, from paveo, 3d dec,* masc gen.,^ 
sing, num., abl. case, absolute with seddtof 

Seddto, a perf. part, pass., from the act. verb sedo, of the 1st conj.,^ 
[Principal parts in both voices], masc gen., sing, num., abl. case,* agree- 
ing with pavor eS'"' 

Tandem, an adverb of time, modifying seddto.^^ 

Postquam, an adverb of time, compounded of post and quam, modifying 
obtitiuit and rediit, and serving to connect the first and third clauses.*^*' 

The grammatical subject of the 3d clause is lux, which is limited by 
ser&na and tranquilla. The grammatical predicate is rediit, which is modi- 
fied by postquam and die. Die is modified by turbido, which is itself modi- 
fied by tarn,. 

Luz, a com. noun, 3d dec,*^^ fem. gen.,** sing, num., nom. case. 

Serena, an adj., 1st and 2d dec, fem. gen., sing, num., nom. case, agree- 
ing with lux.'' 

Et, a copulative conjunction, connecting serena and tranquilla/f 

Tranquilla, like serena. 

Rediit, a neuter verb, from redeo, compounded of insep. prep, red ^^ and" 
eo^^ [Prin. parts], ind. mood., perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d person, 
agreeing with lux}^ 

Die, a com. noun, 5th dec,** masc gen., sing, num., abl. case afler 
prep, ex.^^ 

Turbido, an adj. agreeing with die. Tarn, an adverb, modifying tur 
bido.^^ . 

Ubi, an adverb of time, and, like postquam, a connective, and a doable 
modifier. It connects the fourth clause to the first, and limits the 
predicates vidit and obtinuit.'^'^ 

h § 158. 
c <s 205. 

e & 87. 
/§247. 
g\l% 
A 5 62. 



>211. 


r § 229. 


z ( 


^105. 


^'' § 182. 


.149. 


« Q 205. 

t ^257, Rem. 1. 


aa ( 


5205. 


" 5209. 


. 189, 2. 


hhi 


)277. 


*t §90. 


»157. 


" § 102, 1. 


cc( 


277, Rem. 8. 


M §241. 


209. 


vllQ. 


dd{ 


78.' 




. 193, 6. 


Ab%. 


ee } 


[62. 




,277. 


*te7. 


//| 


i278. 




46. 


y§145. 


g?^ 


\ 196, 14. 




22* 











258 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 

The subject of the 4th clause is the same as that of the first, with which 
it is connected ; it is therefore omitted." 

The grammatical predicate of the 4th clause is vidit : this is limited by- 
its object, which is the 5th clause.^ 

Vidit, an act. verb, 2d conj. [Principal parts and formation], act. voice, 
ind. mood, perf. indef. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing with pubes 
understood.*^ 

The 5th clause has no connective. Its grammatical subject is sederrtj 
which is limited by regiam. Its grammatical predicate is \esse) vacuam^ 
the former being understood.'^ 

Sedem, a com. noun, 3d. dec, fem. gen., sing, num., ace. case.* 

Regiam, a possessive adj., derived from rex, agreeing with sedem. 

Vacuam, an adj., agreeing with sedem. 

The 6th clause is connected to the leading clause by the concessive ^ 
conjunction etsi, to v/hich the adversative ^ tamen corresponds in the first 
clause. 

Its subject is the same as that of the leading clause. 

Its grammatical predicate is credebat, which is limited by satis and 
patribus. 

Credebat, a neut. verb,'^ 2d conj. [Principal parts, and formations of 1st 
root], act. voice, ind. mood, imperf. tense, sing, num., 3d pers., agreeing 
with piibes understood. 

Satis, an adverb of degree* modifying credebat.^ 

Patribus, a com. noun, 3d dec.,^ masc. gen.,"* plur. num., dat. case, 
depending upon credebat,'" and modified by the relative clause following. ° 

The 7th clause, which is connected by qui^ to the preceding one, is in- 
troduced to show the situation of those senators at the time of the removal 
of Romulus. 

Qui is its grammatical subject, and is a relative pronoun,^ masc. gen., 
plur. num., agreeing with patribus understood.'' 

Steterant, a neut. verb,^ 1st conj., irregular in its 2d root^ [Principal 
parts, and formations of 2d root], act. voice, ind. mood,plup. tense, 3d pers. 
plur., agreeing with qui.^ 

Frozimi, an adj. of the superlative degree^ [Compare it], 1st and 2d dec, 
masc. gen., plur. num., nom. case, agreeing with qui, and also modifying 
steterant.^ 

The 8th clause has no connective. It depends on the verb credebat. 
Its subject is eum, i.e. Komulum understood. Its grammatical predicate 
is raptum (esse) which is modified by sublimem and procelld. 

Raptum (esse), an act. verb, 3d conj.® [Principal parts in both voices, 
and formations of 3d root in the passive], pass, voice, infin. mood, perf. 
tense with the meaning of plup., depending on credebat."^" 

Sublimem, an adj. of 3d dec. and two terminations,* masc. gen., sing, 
num., ace. case, agreeing with Romulum understood,^ and also modifying 
raptum esse.^ 

Procelld, a com. noun, 1st dec.,* fem. gen., sing, num., abl. case."* 



J 109. 

1205. 
Ul. 

1 2^. 



209, 


Rem. 


2, 


{^•) 


g { 


U98, 


4. 




VI { 


^28. 

)223. 
) 201, III. 




r <^ 206. 






229, 


Rem. 


,5. 




h \ 


)142. 






n ( 




^ '^ 165. 






209. 








i { 


)191, 


Rem. 


5. 


I 


4. 


t (^ 126, 


1. 




270, 


Rem. 


3. 




^ \ 


^277. 
&71. 






p i 


i203,4. 




^^^£05, 


Rem. 


15, 


239. 








I { 






3 { 


ri36. 




V cx 169. 







/§198,3. 



3PR0S0DY. QUANTITY ; GENERAL RULES. 259 



PROSODY. 



<5»282. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, 
and the laws of versification. 



QUANTITY. 

1 . The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occu- 
pied in pronouncing it. 

2. A syllable is either long, short, or common, 

A long syllable requires double the time occupied in pro- 
nouncing a short one^- as, dmdre, 

A common syllable is one which, in poetry, may be made 
either long or short ; ns the middle syllable of tenehrcB. 

8. The quantity of a syllable is either natural or accidental ; 
— natural, when it depends on the nature of its vowel ; acci- 
dental, when it depends on its position. 

Thus the e in reslsto is short by nature ; while in restiti it is long by 
accident, being followed by two consonants. 

4. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es- 
tablished rules, or, in cases not included in the rules, by the 
authority of the poets. 

5. The rules of quantity are either general or special. The 
former apply alike to all the syllables of a word, the latter to 
particular syllables. 

GENERAL RULES 

<§) 283, L A vowel before another vowel, or a diph- 
thong, is short ; as, raeus^ patrice. Thus, 

Conscia mens recti faniGS mendacia ridet. Ovid. 
Ipse etiam eximicB laudis succensus amore. Virg. 

So also when h comes between the vowels, since h is ac- 
counted only a breathing ; as, nihil. See § 2. Thus, 
De niMlo nihil, in nikilum nil posse reverti. Pers. 
Exc. L I^io has the i long, when not followed by er; as, 
fh'-nt, fieham. Thus, 

Omnia jam /tew^j/leri quae posse negabam. Ovid. 
It is sometimes found long even before er; as, fierct (Ter.), Jiiri 
(Plant.) 



260 PROSODY.-— QUANTITY ; GENERAL RULES. 

Exc. 2. E is long before i in the termination of the geni- 
tive and dative of the fifth declension; diS, faciei. Thus, 
Non radii solisj neque lucida tela di€i. Lucr. 
But it is short in spei, and both long and short in rei and fidei. 

Exc. 3. A is long in the penult of old genitives in di of 
the first declension ; as, aulai, pictdi. 

So also are a and e in proper names in atus or e'ius ; as, Cdius, Pom- 
p^'ius. Thus, 

^thereum sensum, atque aurd'i simplicis ignem. Virg. 
Accipe, Pompet, deductum carmen ab illo. Ovid. 

Exc. 4. / is common in genitives in ius ; as, unius, ilUus. 
Thus, 

Ulius et nitido stillent unguenta capillo. Tihull. 
Illlus puro destillent tempora nardo. Id. 
But in alterms it is always short ; in alius always long. 

Exc. 5. The first vowel of eheu is long ; that of Diana, lo, 
and ohe, is common. 

Exc. 6. In many Greek words, a vowel is long, though im- 
mediately followed by another ; as, 

ae'r, Achaia, Achelous, dia, eos. Laertes, and other words compounded 
with laos. 

(1.) Words which, in Greek, are written with ei before a vowel, and in 
Latin with e or z, have the e or i long ; as, ^neas, Alexandria, Cassiopea, 
Clio, Darius, elegla, Galatea, Medea, Mausoleum, Penelopea, Thalia. 

Hence, most adjectives in eus, formed from Greek proper names, have 
the e long ; as, Cythereus, Pelopeus. 

Exc. Academia, chorea, Malea, ^^^a^eo^, and some patronymics and 
patrials in eis, have the penult common ; a?, jYerets. 

(2.) Greek genitives in eos, and accusatives in ea, from nominatives in 
eus, generally shorten the e; as, Orpheos, Orphea ; — but the e is some- 
times lengthened by the Ionic dialect; as, Cepheos, Tlionea. 

(3.) Greek words in ais, ois, aius, eius, oius, aon, and ion, generally 
lengthen the first vowel ; as, J\''dis, Minois, Grains, JVereivs, Mind'ius, 
Machdon, Ixion. But Thebdis, Simois, Phdon, Deucalion, Pygmalion, and 
many others, shorten the former vowel. 

Note 1. Greek words in aon and ion, with o short in the genitive, 
have the penult long ; but with o long in the genitive, they have it short ; 
as, Amythdon, -donis ; Deucalion, -dnis. 

Note 2. Greek proper names in eus (gen. eos), as Orpheus, always 
have the eu a diphthong in the original, and, with very few exceptions, in 
the Latin poets. 

II. A diphthong is long ; as, durum, fcenus, Ektbcea. 
Thus, 

Thesauros ignotum argenti pondus et auri. Virg. 
Infernique lacus, JEceceque insula Circas. Id. 



PROSODY. — quantity; general rules. 261 

Exc. 1. PrcB, in composition, is short before a vowel ; as, 
pr^ustus, prceaciitus. Thus, 

Nee tola tamen ille Y>^ioT prtteunte carina. Virg. 
In Statius, and Sidonius Apollinaris, it is found long. 
Exc. 2. A diphthong, at the end of a word, when the next word begins 
with a vowelj is sometimes made short ; as, 

Insulce lonio in magno, quas dira Celaeno. Virg. 
Remark. U, followed by another vowel, is, in prosody, not considered 
as a diphthong ; as, gudtio, queror, cequor, llngudy sanguis. 

III. A syllable formed by contraction is long; as, 

allies for aliius ; cogo for codgo ; nil for nihil ; junior for juvenior. Thus, 
Tityre cage pecus, tu post carecta latebas. Virg. 

IV. A vowel naturally short, before two consonants, a 
double consonant, or the letter j, is long hy position ; as, 
armay helium, axis, gdza, major. Thus, 

Pdscere oportet OTes deductum dicere carmen. Virg. 
Kec myrtus vincet corylos ; nee laurea Phcebi. Id. 
At nobis, Pax alma, veni, spicamque teneto. TlhulL 
Rara juvant : primis sic major gratia pomis. Mart, 

Exc. 1. The compounds o^jugum have i short before J; as, 
bijugus, qiiadrijugus. Thus, 

Interea hijugis infert se LeucSgus albis. Virg. 

Remark. The vowel is long by position w^hen either one or 
both of the consonants is in the same word with it ; but when 
both stand at the beginning of the following word, the vowel is 
either long or short ; as, 

Tolle moras ; semper nocuit differre paratis. Lucan. 
Ferte citi ferrum; date tela; scandite muros. Virg. 
Ne tamen ignoret, quae sit sententid seripto. Ovid. 
A short vowel at the end of a word, before a double consonant or j, is 
not lengthened. 

Exc. 2. A vowel naturally short, before a mute followed by 
a liquid, is common ; as, agris, pharetra, volucris, poplites^ 
cochlear. Thus, 

Et primo similis volueri, mox vera volucris. Ovid. 
Natum ante ora pdtris, pair em qui obtruncat ad aras. Id. 
Nox tenebras profert, Phoebus fugat inde tenebras. Id. 
Rem. 1. If the vowel is naturally long, it continues so; as, salubris, 
ambulacrum. 

Rem. 2. A mute and liquid render the preceding short vowel common 
only when they are such as may begin a Latin word, or a word derived 
from the Greek. In compound words, of which the former part ends with 
a mute, and the latter begins with a liquid, a short vowel before the mute 
is made long by position ; as, dbluo, obruo, suhlevo, quamobrem. 

Rem. 3. A mute and liquid at the beginning of a word seldom lengthen 
the short vowel of the preceding word. 



262 PROSODY. QUANTITY ; SPECIAL RULES, 

Rem. 4. In Latin words, a short vowel is rendered common only be» 
fore a mute with I or r; but, in words of Greek origin, also before a mute 
with m ov n; as in Atlas^ Tecmessa, Procne. 



SPECIAL RULES. 
FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

I. DERIVATIVE WORDS. 

^ 284, Derivative v^ords retain the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, 

animal, dnimdtus, from dnima ; gemebundus, from gewere ; fdrmlia, 
from, famulus ; mdternus, from mater ; propinquus, from prop e. 

Rem. 1. Derivatives from increasing nouns of the third 
declension agree in quantity with the increment of their primi- 
tives ; as, 

funehris, from, funeris ; virgmeus , from, virginis ; saluber, from salutis. 

Rem. 2. In verbs, the derived tenses agree in quantity 
with the special root from which they are formed ; as, 

moveham, momho, moveam, moverem, move, movere, movens, movendus, 
from mov, the root of the present, with 6 short; — moveram, moverim, 
movissem, movero, movisse, from mov, the root of the perfect, with o long; 
moturus and motus, from motu, the root of the supine, with 6 also long. 

Solutum and volutum, have the first syllable short, as if from soluo, vo/no. 
So genui, genitum, as if from geno; and potui, from potis sum (possuvi). 

Ardtrumy simulacrum, have their penult long, as derived from the supines 
ardtum and simuldtuiri ; monimentuvi and initium have their antepenult 
short, as derived from the supines monitum and initum. 

Exc. 1. Perfects and supines of two syllables have the 
first syllable long, even w^hen that of the present is short ; 
as, 

v&ni, vidiffeci, from venio, video, fdcio ; cdsum, motum, visum, from cddo, 
moveo, video. But, 

(1.) These seven perfects have the first syllable short : — bibi^ 
dedijftdi {from Jindo), scidi, steti^ stiti, tuli. 

The first syllable is also short before a vowel (§ 283) ; as, rui. 

(2.) These ten supines have the first syllable short :- — cttum 
(from cieo), datum ^ itum^ litum^ quitum, rdtum, rutum^ satum^ 
situm, and stdtum. 

So also the obsolete /w^wm, fromj^o, whence comes futHrus. 

Exc. 2. Reduplicated perfects have the first two syllables 
short ; as, 

cecini, tefigi, d)idA,ci, from cano, tango, disco. But the second syllable 
is sometimes made long by position ; as, momordi^ tetendi. 



PROSODY. QUANTITY ) COMPOUND WORDS. 263 

Cicldi (from ccedo) and pepedi also have the second syllable long. 

Exc. 3. The o in posui is short, though long in pono. 

Exc. 4. The a in da, imperative of do, is long, though short in the 
other parts of the verb. 

Exc. 5. Desiderative verbs in urio have the u short, though, in the 
third special root from which they are formed, it is long ; as, ccenaturio 
from ccendtu, the third root of cgbtio. So parturio, esurio, nupturio. 

Exc. 6. Frequentative verbs, formed from the third special root of the 
first conjugation, have the i short; as, clarr§to, vollto. See § 187, II. 1. 

Exc. 7. Many other derivatives deviate from the quantity 
of their primitives. 

1. Some have a long vowel from a short one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Deni, /rom decem. Lex (legis),/ro77i lego. Semen, /rom sero. 

Femes and ) from M6bilis,/ro7^ moveo. StIpendium,/rom stips 

Fomentum, ) &veo. Regula, ') from (stipis). 

Hamanus, /rom homo. Rex (regis), ) rego. Tegula,/row.tego. 

Laterna,/ro77i lateo. Secius, /rom secus. Vox (vocis), /rom voco. 

Macero,/ro77i maceo. Sedes, /rom sedeo. 

2. Some have a short vowel from a long one in the primitive. 
Such are, 

Dicax, /rom dico. Molestus, /rom moles. Sagax, /rom sagio. 

Disertus, /rom dissero. Na to, /rom natu. Sopor, /rom sopio. 

Dux (du cis), /rom duco. Noto, /rom notu. Vadum, /rom vado. 

Fides, /rom fido. Quasillus, /rom qualus. 

Fragor, ) from 
Fragilis, ) frango. 

Some other words might, perhaps, with propriety be added to these lists ', 
but, in regard to the derivation of most of them, grammarians are not en- 
tirely agreed. 

Remark. Some of these irregularities have, perhaps, arisen from the 
influence of syncope and crasis. Thus mobllis may have been movibilis ; 
7ndtum, vioviium, <fec. 

Sometimes the vowel in the derived word becomes short by dropping 
one of the consonants which, in the primitive, made it long by position ; 
as, disertus, from dissero. So, when the vowel of the primitive is short 
before another vowel, it is sometimes made long by the insertion of a con- 
sonant ; as, hihernus, from hlems. 

The first syllable in liquidus is supposed to be common, as coming from 
liquor or liqueo ; as, 

Crassaque conveniunt liquidis, et llqutda crassis. Lucr. 



II. COMPOUND WORDS. 

<^ 285. Compound words retain the quantity of the 
words which compose them ; as, 

defero, of de and flro ; ddoro, of dd and oro. So dhorior^ dmoveo, cir- 
cumeo, comedo, enitor, produce, suborno. 



U64 PEOSODY. -QUANTITY ; COMPOUND WORBS. 

The change of a vowel or diphthong in forming the com^ 
pound does not alter its quantity ; as, 

conetdo, from cddo; concido, from cmdo ; erigo, from rego ; redudo, from 
daudo; imquus, from aquus. 

Exc. 1. A long syllable in the simple word becomes short in the follow- 
ing compounds : — agnitus and cogmtus, from notus ; dejero and pejero, from 
juro ; hodie, from hoc die ; nihilum and nihil, from hlluin ; semisopituSy 
from sopio ; causidictcs, and other compounds ending in dicus, from dico. 

Exc. 2. Imbecillus, from bd^llum, has the second syllable long. The 
participle ambitus has the penult long from Itum, but the nouns ambitus 
and ambitio follow the rule. 
-Exc. 3. Innuba, pronuba ja.nd subnuba^ from, nubo, have u short; but in 
connubium^ it is common. 

Exc. 4. final, in the compounds of do and sto, is common, though- 
long in the simple verbs. 

Note. It may be observed, that prepositions of one syllable, which end 
in a vowel, are long (§ § 294, 295, and 297) ; those which end in a single 
consonant are short (§§ 299 and 301). 

Exc. 5. Pro, in the following compounds, is short : — procella, prof anus, 
profdri, profecto, profestus, prSjidscor, profiteor, profugio, profugus, pro- 
fundus, pronepos, proneptis^ propero, and protervus. In the following, it is 
comiQ.on -.—procuro , profundo, propdgo,propello, propinx), amd propulso. 

Rem. 1. The Greek preposition pro (before) is short; as, pi-opheta^ 
prologus. 

Rem. 2. The inseparable prepositions di aini se are long ; as^ 
diducOf sepdro. But di is short in dirimo and dlsertus. 
Rem. 3. The inseparable preposition re or red is short ; as^ 
remitto, refero^reddmo. But in the impersonal verb refert, re is long,, 
as coming from res. 

Rem. 4. Except in prepositions, a, ending the first part of a 
compound word, is long ; e, i, o, u, and ^, are short ; as, 

mdlo, qudpropter, trddo (trans do) ; nifas, valedico, hujuscemodi ; biceps j 
omnipotens, signiftco ; hodie, quandoguidem, philosophus ; ducenti, locuples, 
Trojugena ; Polydorus, Eurypylus, Thrasybulus. 

Exc. 1. A. In quasi, eddem when not an ablative, and in some Greek 
compounds, a is short ; as, catdpulta, hexameter. 

Exc. 2. E. The e is long in nemo, nequam, nequando, nequdquamy 
nequidquam, nequis, neqvitia ; memet, mecum,, tecum, secum, vecors, vesd' 
nu^, vemficus, and videlicet, (see § 295 ;) — also in words compounded with 
se for sex or semi; as, sedecim, semestris, semodius ; but in selibra it is 
found short in Martial. 

Note. The e in videlicet, as in vide, is sometimes made short. See 
§295, Exc. 3. 

E is common in some verbs compounded with, f ado ; as, liquef ado, pate* 
fado, rarefacio, tabefado, tepefado. 

Exc. 3. I. (1.) The i is long in those compounds in which the first 
part is declined, (§ 296 ;) as, quidam, quivis, quilibet, quanfivis, quantl- 
cunque, tantidem, uniculque, eidem, reipublicce, qualicunque, utrique. 

(2.) / is also long in those compounds which may be separated without 



PROSODY. QUANTITY ; INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 265 

altering the sense, (§296;) as, ludlmagister , lucrifacioy siquis, agri- 
cultura. 

(3.) /, ending the former part of a compound word, is sometimes made 
long by contraction ; as, tibicen for tibiicen, from tibia and cano. See 
§ 283, III. 

(4.) / is long in blgCB^ quadrigce, illcet, scilicet ^ bimus, trlmusj quadrimus. 

(5.) In idem, when masculine, i is long; but when neuter, it is short. 
The i of ubique and utroblque, the second in ibidem, and the first in nlmi- 
rum, are long. In ubicumque and ubivis, as in ubi, i is common. 

(6.) Compounds of dies have the final i of the former part long ; as, 
blduum, trlduiim, m,eridies, quotldie, quotldidnus, pridie, postrldie. 

Note. In Greek words, ^, ending the former part of a compound, is 
short, unless it comes from the diphthong ei, or is made long or common 
by position ; as, CalUmdchus. 

Exc. 4. O. (1.) In compounds, the final o of contro, intro, retro, and 
quando (except quandoqutdem,) is long ; as, controversia, introduco, retro- 
cedo, quandoque. is long also in alioquin, ceteroquin, utroque, utroblque, 

(2.) is long also in the compounds of quo ; as, quomodo, quocunque^ 
q'jLdminus, quocirca, quovis, quoque ; but in the conjunction quoque, it is 
short. 

(3.) Greek words which are written with an omega have the o long ; 
as, geometra, Minotaurus, lagopus, 

Exc. 5. U. The u is long in Jupiter, judex, and judicium. The final 
u in the former part of usucapio and usuvenio is regularly long. See § 298. 



III. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

^ 286. 1. A noun is said to increase, when, in any of its 
cases, it has more syllables than in the nominative singular ; as, 
pax, pads ; sermo, sermonis. 

The number of increments in any case of a noun is equal to 
that of its additional syllables. 

2. Nouns in general have but one increment in the singular. 
But iter, supellex, compounds of caput ending in ps, and sometimes 

jecur, have two ; as, 

.12. 12 

iter, i-tin-e-ris ; anceps, an-cip-l-tis ; 

12 12 

supellex, su-pel'lec-ti'lis ; jecur, je-cin-o-ris. 
The double increase of iter, &c., in the singular number arises from their 
coming from obsolete nominatives, containing a syllable more than those 
now in use ; as, itiner, &c. 

3. The dative and ablative plural of the third declension 
have one increment more than the genitive singular ; as, 

rex. Gen. re-gis, D. and Ab. reg-l-bus. 

sermo, ser-mo-nis, ser-mon-i-hu^. 

iter, i-tin-e-ris, it-i-ner-i-bus. 

4. The last syllable of a word is never considered as the in^ 

23 



266 PROSODY. QUANTITY ; INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

crement. If a word has but one increment, it is the penult; 
if two, the antepenult is called the first, and the penult the 
second ; and if three, the syllable before the antepenult is called 
the first, the antepenult the second, and the penult the third 
increment. 

5. In the third declension, the quantity of the first increment 
in all the other cases is the same as in the genitive singular; as, 

sermonis, sermoni, sermonem^ sermone, sermones, sermonum, sermorvihus, 
Bobus, or bubus, from bos, bovis, is lengthened by contraction from bdvibtis. 

Note. As adjectives and participles are declined like nouns, the same 
roles of increment apply to all of them, 

INCREMENTS OF THE SINGULAR NUMBER. 
OF THE FIRST, FOURTH, AND FIFTH DECLENSIONS. 

^ 287. 1. When nouns of the first, fourth, and fifth declensions? 
increase in the singular number, the increment consists of a vowel before 
the final vowel, and its quantity is determined by the first general rule 
with its exceptions. See § 283. 

INCREMENTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

2. The increments of the second declension are short ; 
as, 

gener, generi ; satur^ saturi; tener, teneri; vir, vtrL Thus, 
O pueri I ne tanta animis assuescite bella. Virg. 
Monstra sinunt : gener os externis aitore ab oris. Id, 
Exc. The increment of Iber and Celtiber is long. For that of genitives 
in ius, see § 283, Exc. 4, 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION, 

3. The increments of the third declension in a and o 
are long ; those in e, i, u, and y, are short ; as, 

aritmal, animdlis ; audax, auddcis ; sermo, sermonis; ferox, ferocis; 
opuSf operis ; celer, celeris ; miles , militis ; supplex, supplwis/ murmur, 
murmuris ; cicurycicuris. Thus, 

Pronaque cum spectent animdlia cetera terram, Ovid, 

HsBC tum multiplici populos sermone replebat. Virg. 

Incumbent generis lapsi sarcire ruinas. Id. 

Qualem virgineo demessum pollice florem. Id. 

Aspice, ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aurse. Id. 

Exceptions in Increments in A. 

1. Masculines in al and ar (except Car and Nar) increase 
short ; as, Annihal. Annihdlis. 



PROSODY. Q,UANTITY ; INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 267 

Par and its compounds, and the following — ancLS, mas, vas (vddis), 
haccaTy hepar, jubar, lar, nectar, and sal — also increase short. 

2. A, in the increment of nouns in 5 with a consonant be- 
fore it, is short ; as, Arabs, Ardbis. 

3. Greek nouns in a and as {ddis or dtis) increase short ; 
as, poema, poemdtis ; lampas, lampddis, 

4. The following in ax increase short : — ahax, anthrax, Atax, Atrax, 
climax, colax, corax, dropax, fax, harpax, panax, pliylax, smllax, and 
styrax. 

Exceptions in Increments in O. 

1. O, in the increment of neuter nouns, is short ; as, 
marmor,marmdris ; corpus, corporis ; ebur, ehoris. Buto5 (the mouth), 

and the neuter of comparatives, like their masculine and feminine, in- 
crease long. The increment ofador is common. 

2. O is short in the increment of Greek nouns in o or on^ 
which, in the oblique cases, have omicron ; as, 

Aedon, Aedonis ; Agamemnon, Agamemnonis. Sldon, Orion, and 
J^gcBon, have the increment common. 

3. In the increment of gentile nouns in o or on^ o is gene- 
rally short; as, 

Macedo, Macedonis. So, Senones, Teutones, &c. 

But the following have o long : — Eburoncs, Lacones, lones, JVasamones, 
Suessones, Vettones, Burgundiones. Britones has the o common. 

4. Greek nouns in tor increase short ; as. Hector, Hectoris ; 
rhetor, rhetoris, 

5. Compounds of pus (jtovg), &s tripus, Polypus, and also arbor, memor, 
hos, compos, impos, and lepus, increase short. 

6. O, in the increment of nouns in s with a consonant before 
it, is short ; as, 

scrobs, scrobis ; inops, inopis. But it is long in the increment of 
Cercops, Cyclops, and Hydrops. 

7. The increment of Allobrox^ Cappddox, 3jid prcecox, is also short. 

Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. Nouns in en, enis (except Hi/men), lengthen their incre- 
ment ; as. Siren, Sirenis. 

2. Hceres, locuples, mansues, merces, and quies—nlso Ibcr, ver, lex, rex, 
and vervex—plebs, seps, and halec — increase long. 

3. Greek nouns in es and er (except aer and cether) increase 
long ; as, magnes, magnetis ; crater, crateris. 

Exceptions in Increments in I. 

1. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in ix, increase long ; as, 
victrix^ victricis ; felix, felicis. 



268 PROSODY. (QUANTITY ; INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

2. The following nouns in ix also increase long : — cervix, cicatrix^ 
cornix, coturnix, lodixj matrix^ perdix, phoBnix, and radix. So also vihex 

(vibicis) . 

3. Greek nouns, whose genitive is in inis, increase long ; as, 
delphin, delpMnis ; Saldmis, Salaminis. 

4. The following nouns in is increase long : — dis, glisy lis, Ntsis, 
Quiris, and Samnis. The increment of Psophis is common. 

Exceptions in Increments in U. 

1. Genitives in uclis, uris, and utis, from nominatives in us, 
have the penult long ; as, 
** paluSf paludis ; tellus, ielluris ; virtus, virtutis* But intercus, Ligus, 
and pecuSy increase short. 
2. Fur,frux (obs.), lux, and Pollux, increase long. 

Exceptions in Increments in Y. 

1. Greek nouns whose genitive is in ynis, increase long ; as, 
PJiorcyn, Phorcynis ; Trachys, Trachynis, 

2. The increment of bomhyx, Ceyx, and gryps, is long ; that of Behryx 
and sandyx is common. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

<^ 288. A noun in the plural number is said to increase, 
when, in any case, it has more syllables than in the nominative 
plural. 

When a noun increases in the plural number, its penult is 
called the plural increment ; as, sa in musdrum, no in domino- 
rum, pi in rupium and rupihus. 

In plural increments, «, e, and o, are long, i and u 
are short ; as, 

hondrum, animdbus, rerum, rebus, generorum, ambobus ; sermomhus, 
lacubus. Thus, 

Appia, longdruvi, teritur, reglna mdrum. Stat. 
Sunt lacrymse rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt. Vhg. 
Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est. Hor. 
Portubus egredior, Yeni\^q}ie ferentibus usus. Ovid, 

IV. INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

<§) 289. 1. A verb is said to increase, when, in any of its 
parts, it has more syllables than in the second person singular 
of the present indicative active ; as, das^ dd-tis ; doces, do- 
ce-mus. 



PROSODY. Q,UANT1TY ; INCREMENT OF VERBS. 269 

2. The number of increments in any part of a verb is equal 
to that of its additional syllables. In verbs, as in nouns, the 
last syllable is never considered the increment. If a verb has 
but one increment, it is the penult ; and this first increment, 
through all the variations of the verb, except in reduplicated 
tenses, continues equally distant from the first syllable. The re- 
maining increments are numbered successively from the first; as, 

a-mas, mo-nes, au-dis, 

1 1 1 

a-ma-mus, mo-ne-tur, au-di-tis, 

12 12 12 

am-a-ba-mus, mon-e-re-tur, au-di-e-bas, 

12 3 12 3 12 3 4 

am-a-ve-ra-mus. mon-e-bim-i-ni. au-di-e-bam-i-ni. 

A verb in the active voice may have three increments ; in the passive, 
it may have four. 

3. In determining the increments of deponent verbs, an 
active voice may be supposed, formed regularly from the same 
root, 

1 1 2 

Thus the increments of Ice-td-tur, Icet-a-ba-tur, &c., are reckoned from 
the supposed verb lento, Icntas. 

<§) 290. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o, are long ; 
I and u are short ; as. 

aradre, monere, facitote, volumuSy regebdmini. Thus, 
Et cantdre pares, et respondere pardti. Virg. 
Sic equidem ducebam animo, re^«?'que futurum. Id. 
Cumque loqui poterit, matrem/acz^o^e salutet. Ovid, 
ScindUur interea studia in contraria vulgus. Virg. 
Nos numeros sumus, et fruges consumere nati. Id, 

Exceptions in Increments in A. 

The first increment of do is short; as, ddmuSy ddbdmus, 
circumddre, circumddhdmus. 

Exceptions in Increments in E. 

1. E before r is short in ihe first increment of all the pres- 
ent and imperfect tenses of the third conjugation, and in the 
second increment in heris and here ; as, 

regere (infin. and imperat.), regeris or regere (pres. ind. pass.), regerem 
and regerer (imp. subj.) ; amaberis, amabere ; moneberis, monebere. 

Note. Velim, velis, &c., from volo, have the e short, according to § 284. 

2. E is short before ram, rim, ro, and the persons formed 
from them ; as, 

amaveram, amaverat, amaveriin, monuerimus, rexero, audiveritis. 

Note. In verbs which have been shortened by syncope or otherwise, 
e before r retains its original quantity ; ^3,fleram for fleveram. 

For the short e before runt, in the perfect indicative, as. steterurU, 
see Systole, § 307. 

23 * 



270 PROSODY. — quantity; penults* 

Exceptions in increments in I. 

1. / before v, in tenses formed from the second root, is \ong\ 
as, petivi, audivi, qucBsivit, audivimus, audiveram. See § 2^, 
Rem. 2. 

2. The first increment of the fourth conjugation, except in 
tmus of the perfect indicative, is long ; as, 

audlre, audirem, venlmics, but in the perfect vemmiis. So in the 
ancient forms in ibam, iho, of the fourth conjugation; as, nutrtbatj 
lenibunt ; and also in iham and iho, from eo. 

When a vowel follows, the i is short, by § 283 ; as, audiunt, audUham^ 
Z. I is long in simus, sitis, velimus, velitis, and their compounds } as, 
posslmus^ adsimus, malimus, nolimus, and nolito^ nolitCy nolitoie. 

4. / in rimus and ritis, in the future perfect and perfect 
subjunctive, is common ; as, 

mderitis (Ovid.), dixeritis (Id.), fecerimus {Ca.tu\\.)yContigeritis(Ovid.) ) 
egerunus (Virg.). 

Exceptions in Increments in U. 

U is long in the increment of supines, and of participles 
formed from the third root of the verb ; as, 
secutus, solutus^ secuturuSy soluturuSc 



RULES FOR THE QUANTITY OF THE PENULTIMATE AND 
ANTEPENULTIMATE SYLLABLES OF WORDS OF CER- 
TAIN TERMINATIONS. 

I. PENULTS. 

<§> 29 !• 1. Words ending in acus, icus, and icum, shorten 

the penult : as, 

amardcus, ^^gijptidcus, academicuSy rusticus, triticum, tiaficum. 

Except merdcus, opdcus : amicus, apricus, anticuSj ficits, lumhricus, 
mendlcus, posticus, pudicus, umbilicus, vlcus. 

2. Words ending in ahrum, uhrumy acrum. ucrum, and atrum, 
lengthen the penult ; as, 

candelabrum, dclubrum, lavdcrum, involitcrum, verdtrum, lucrum. 

3. Nouns in ca lengthen the penult ; as, 
clodca, apotheca, lorica, phoca, lactuca. 

Except allca, brassica, dica, fulica, mautica, pedtca, pertlca, scutica, 
phalarica, sublica, tunica, vomica ; and also some nouns in ica, derived 
from adjectives in icus ; aLS,fabrica, grammatica, <fec. So maritcce. 

4. Patronymics in ades and ides shorten the penult ; as, 
Atlantiades , Priamides. 

Except those in ides which are formed from nouns in eus or es ; as, 
Atrides, from ^treus; JVeoclides, from JVeocles ; except, Blso^.^mphiar aides, 
Belides, Japetionides, Lycurgides, 



PROSODY. — quantity; penults* 271 

5. PaUonymics and similar words in ais^ eis, and ois, lengthen 
the penult; as, 

Achdis, Ckryseisj Mlnois. Except Phocdis and Thehdis. The penult 
of JVere'is is common. 

6. Words in do lengthen the penult ; as, 

vddo, cedojformido^ rodo, tcstudo, altiiudo. Except soUdOj comedo, 
iinedo, cddo, dlvido, edo (to eat), spado, trepido. Rudo is common. 

7. Words in idus shorten the penult ; those in udus lengthen 
It; as, 

callldus, perfidus ; Indus, nudus. Except /leZw;?, infidus, nidus, sldus. 

8. Nouns in ga and go lengthen the penult ; as, 

collega, saga, ruga, imago, caligo, airugo. Except caliga, toga, har^ 
pdgo, Ugo, pldga, (a region,) p erf it ga. 

9. Words in le, les, and lis, lengthen the penult ; as^ 

or male, mantele, ancUe; dies, miles, proles; anndlis, crud^lis, civilisy 
curulis. 

Except verbals in His ; as, agllis, amahUis ; — adjectives in atilis ; as, 
aquatilis, umhratilis ; — and the following ; dapsilis, dactylis, gracilis, 
humiUs, parilis, similis, sterilis, indoles, soboles, m,ugtlis, stricrills. 

10. W^ords in elus, ela, elum, lengthen the penult ; as, pJia- 
aelus, querela, prelum. Except gelus^ gelum. 

11. Diminutives in olus,ola, olum, ulus, ula, ulwn, also words 
in ilus, and those in idus and ula of more than two syllables, 
shorten the penult ; as, 

urce6lus,jili6la, tuguriolum^ lectulus, ratiunculd, torculum ; ruiilus,gar- 
ridus,fabula. 

12. Words in j?ia lengthen the penult ; as^ 

fdma, poema, rima, axioma, plfima. Y^xc.arvimd,c6ma,tacryma,viciivia. 

13. A vowel before final men or mentum is long ; as, 
levdmen, grdmen, crimen, flumcji, jiimentum, atrdmentum. 

Except tdmen, columen, hymen, elementum, and certain verbals of 
the second and third conjugations ; as, documentum^ regimen, tegimen, 
&c. 

14. Words ending in i7nus or i/mus shorten the penult ; as, 
animus, finitimus, fords simus, maxlmus, thymus. 

Except himus, limus, mimus, oplmus, quadrimus, simus, trlmus, and 
two superlatives, imus and primus. 

Note. When an adjective ends in umus for imus, the quantity remains 
the same ; as, decumus, optumus, maxumus, for decimus, &c. 

15. A, e, 0, and u, before final mus and mum, are long ; as, 
ramus, remus, extremus, prdmiLS, dumus, pdmum, volemum. 

Except atomus, halsdmum, cinndmum, domus , glomus , humus, postumuSf 
thaldmus, tomus, calamus. 

16. Words in na, nc, ni, and nis, lengthen the penult ; as, 

Idna, arena, carina, matrdna, tuna, mane, anemone, septeni, octdni, ind 
nis, finis, immvnis. 



2t2 PR<5S0DY,— QUANTITY ; PENULTS* 

Except gena^ sine^ cards, c\nis ^ juvenis ; and the following inlna^ — hue- 
clna, domina, Jiscina, femina, fuscina, lamina, machina, pagina, patina ^ 
sarcina, trutina. So indigena^ 

17. Adjectives in inus, derived from names of trees, plants, 
and stones, and from adverbs of time, shorten the penult ; as, 

cedrinus, faginus, crocmus, hyacinthinus , adamantinus, crystalUnus ; 
crastinus, diutinus ; also annotinus, hombyclnus, and elephantinus. 

Other adjectives and words in inus lengthen the penult ; as, 

camnus, hinus, festinus, per egr inus, marinus, clandestinus , supinus. 
Except acinus, asinus, cophinus, dominus, earinus, facinus, fraxinus, 
pampinus, sinus, terminus^ circinus, 

18. A, e, 0, and u, before final nus and num, are long ; as, 
urhdnus, serenus, pronus, munus, vencnum, 

Except galbdnus, mdnus, ocednus, platdnus, tympanum ; ebenus, genus, 
tenus, Venus ; bonus, onus, sonus, tonus, thronus. 

19. Words ending m pa shorten the penult ; as, 

aldpa, nepa, cripa, metdpa, lupa. Except ripa, cepa, scopa, cupa, pupa. 

20. Words in aris and are lengthen the penult ; as, 
aldris, altdre. Except hildrls, canthdris, cappdris, and mdre. 

21. Before final ro or ror, e is short ; z, o, and w, are long ; as, 
tempero, celero, queror ; spiro, ore, figure, rmror. 

Except spero, foro, moror, voro, furo, saturo ; and derivatives from 
genitives increasing short; as, decoro, murmuro, &c; dlso pero. 

22. Before final rus, ra, rura, e is short ; the other vowels 
are long ; as, 

merus, kedera, ceterum; cams, mirus, morus, murus ; hdra, spira, ora, 
natura, lorum. 

Except, 1. austcrus, galerus, plerus, serus, severus, verus, pera, cera, 
panther a, stater a. 

2. barbdrus, cammdrus, camurus, canthdrus, chorus, helleborus, nurus, 
phosphorus, spdrus, torus ; also amphora, anchora, cithdra, mora, purpura^ 
philyra, a,nd forum, suppdrum, gdrum, pdrum. So cindra. 

23. Adjectives in osus lengthen the penult ; Q.s,fumdsus,pe7^- 
niciosus. 

24. Nouns in etas and itas shorten the penult ; as, pietas, 
civitas, 

25. Adverbs in tim lengthen the penult, those in iter shorten 
it ; as, 

oppiddtim, viritim, tributim ; acriter. Ytxce^t stdtim, a jfdtim, per petim. 

26. Words in ates, itis, otis, and eta, lengthen the penult ; as, 
vdtes, pendtes, vitis, mitis, caryotis, Icariotis, meta, poeta. Except 

sttis, potis, drapeta. 

27. Nouns in atum, etum, itum, utum, lengthen the penult ; 
lupdtum, arboretum, aconitum, verutum. Except defrutum, pulpitum^ 



PROSODY. QUANTITY ; ANTEPENULTS. 273 

28. Words ending in tus lengthen the penult ; as, 
barbdtus, grdtuSy boletus, facttus, crinltus, peritus, cegrotuSj tOtus, 

argutuSj hirsutus. 

Except cdtus, Idtus {-^ris), impetus ^ metus, vHus, anheUtus, servHtus, 
spiritus, antidotus, totus (so gie^t), quotus^ arbutus ; adverbs in liz^s, and 
derivatives from supines with a short penult ; as, habitus. So inclytus. 

29. A penultimate vowel before v is long ; as, 

ddva^ oliva, dives, ndms, clvis^ papdver, pdvo, prlvo, ovum, prdmts, 
ccstivus, fugitivus. 

Except avis, brSvis, gravis, Uvis, 6vis; ccLvo, grdvo, juvo, Idvo, Uvo, 
ovo; dvus, cdvus^fdvus, rwvus, favor, pdvor. 

30. Words ending in dex, dix, mex, nix, lex, rex, lengthen 
the penult ; as, 

codex, judex; lodix, radix; clmex^ pumex; junix; ilex; cdrex^ 
murex. Except culex, silez, rumex, 

II. ANTEPENULTS. 

<§> 292* 1. Adjectives in aceus and aneus lengthen the 
antepenult ; as, 

cretdceus, testdceus, momentdneus, subitdneus. 

2. Numerals in ginti, ginta, gies, and estmus, lengthen the 
antepenult; as, 

viginti, quadrdginta, quinqudgies, trigesimus. 

3. O and u before final lentus are short ; as, 
vinolentus, fraudulentus. 

4. A vowel before final nea, neo, nia, nio^ nius, nium, is long ; 
as, 

ardnea, linea, cdneo, munia, punio, Favdnius, patrimonium. 
Except castdnea, tinea, mdneo, mineo, moneo, teneo, ignomlnia, v^nia^ 
linio, Idnio, venio /—and words in clnium ; as, lenoclnium. So luscinia. 

5. Words ending in areo, arius, avium, erium, orius, lengthen 
the antepenult; as, 

dreo, cibdrius, plantdrium, dictSrium, censorius. Except cdreo and 
vdrius. 

6. Adjectives in aticus, atilis, lengthen the antepenult ; as, 
aqudticus, pluvidtilis. Except some Greek words in mdttcus; as, 

grammdtlcus ; also imperium. 

7. /before final tudo is short; as, altitudo, longttudo, 

III. PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

<§> 293. J . Proper names of more than two syllables, 
found in the poets with the following terminations, shorten 
the penult : — 



!?74 




PROSODY.- 


— QUANTITY ; 


PENULTS. 


ba, 


che, 


il, 


les, 


yris, 


dus,i4 


arus, 


usus, 


ca,i 


de, 


on,'' 


anes, 


os,n 


gus,i5 


erus,!^ 


atus,20 


la,2 


le,5 


0,8 


enes, 


bus, 


1US,16 


yrus, 


itus,2i 


ena,5 


pe,6 


erj9 


lis,io 


CUS,12 


mus,!'' 


asus. 


OtUS,22l 


be, 


re, 


mas, 


aris, 


chus,i3 


phuSjis 


osus, 


eus,23 (monosyl.) 


ce,4 


al, 


ras, 













Exceptions, 



1. Marica, Naslca. 

2. Eriphyla, Messala, Philomela. 

3. Alcmena, Amphisibena, Athe- 

nae, Csesena, Camena, Cattie- 
na, Picenae, SophenaB. 

4. Berenice, Elyce. 

5. Eriphyle, Neobule, Perimele. 

6. Europe. 

7. Alemon, Cytheron, Chalcedon, 

DamasitoUj lason, Philemon, 
Sarpedon, Thermodon, Poly- 
giton, Polyphemon. 

8. Carthago, Cupavo, Theano. 

9. Meleager. 

10. Bessalis, Eumelis, Juvenalis, 

Martialis, Phaselis, Stympha- 
lis. 

11. Cercyros, Cotytos, Pharsalos, 

Seriphos. 

12. Benacus, Caycus, Granlcus, 

Mossyneci, Olympionlcus, 

2. Proper names of more than two syllables, found in the 
poets with the following terminations, lengthen the penult : — 



Stratonicus, Trivlcus. 

13. Ophiucus. 

14. Abydus, Androdus. 

15. Cethegus. 

16. jEtolus, Cleobulus, Eumelus, 

Gaetulus, Hanaius, Itilus, 
Mnasylus, Neobulus, Pacto- 
lus, Pompilus, Sardanapalus, 
Stymphalus, Timolus, Thrasy- 
bulus. 

17. Some in demus and phemus ; as, 

Academus, Charidemus, Eu- 
phemus, Menedemus, Philo- 
demus, Polyphemus. 

18. Seryphus. 

19. Homerus, Iberus. 

20. Aratus, Caeratus, Torquatus. 

21. Heraclltus, Hermaphroditus. 

22. Buthrotus. 

23. Enlpeus, Meneceus, Oileus. 



ana,i 


sa, 


num,7 


tas, 


rus,iy 


urus, 


etus,i7 


ina/ 


ta,4 


tum, 


des,9 


pUS,13 


esus,'^^ 


UtUS; 


ona,3 


t8e,5 


or,8 


tesjio 


irus,!^ 


isus. 


ytus,^^ 


yna. 


ene,6 


nas. 


tis,ii 


orus,i5 


ysus, 


vus. 



1. Sequana. 

2. Asina, Mutina, Proserpina, 

Raslna. Ruspina. 

3. Axona, Matrona. 

4. Dalmata, Massageta, Prochyta, 

Sarmata, Sostrata. 

5. Galatse, Jaxametss, Lapithae, 

Macetas, Sauromatae. 

6. Clymene, Helene, Melpomene, 

Nyctimene 

7. Arimmum, Drepanum, Peuce- 

danum. 

8. Numitor. 

9. Miltiades, Pylades, Sotades, 

Thucydldes ; patronymics in 
des, (§ 291, 4,) and plurals in 
ades. 



Exceptions, 

10. Antiphates, Amodytes, Ceri- 
tes, Charttesj Eteretes, Eu- 
rybates, Harpocrates, Ichno- 
bates.MassageteSjMenecrates, 
Socrates. 

11. Dercetis. 

12. Aponus.Acindoiius, Acyndinus, 
Arabenus, Apidanus. Batinus, 
Ccelinus, Chrysogonus, Cim- 
inus, Comagenus, Concanus, 
Dardanus, Diadumenus, Du- 
ranus, Eridanus, Helenus, 
Fusinus, Fuscinus, Illibanus, 
Libanus, Lycinus,Messalinus, 
Morini, Nebrophonus, Pericly- 
menus, Poppeanus, Rhodanus, 
Solinus, Stephanus, Telego- 



PROSODY. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 275 

nusj Terminus, Therinus, Carpophorus, MastigophoruS; 

Vertunus. Phosphorus, Stesichorus. 

13. CEdipus. 16. Ephesus, Vogesus, Volesus. 

14. Lamirus. 17. lapetus, Taygetus. 

15. Pacorus, and those in chorus 18. iEpytus, An^tus, Eurytus, 

and phorus ; as, Bosphorus, Hippolytus. 

3. The penultimate vowel of the following proper names, 
and adjectives derived from proper names, though followed 
by a vowel, -is long. See § 283, Exc. 6. 

Alexandria, Alpheus, Achelous, Achilleus, Achillea, Amphiaraus, Am- 
phlon, jEneas, Arion, Alcyoneus, Aloeus, Anchiseus, Atlanteus, Athlon, 
Amineus, Amphigenia, Amythaon, Antiochia, Bioneus, Cymodocea, 
Calliopea, Cassiopea, Cydoneus, Caesarea, Calaureus, Chremetaon, Cle- 
antheas, Cytherea, Deidamla, Didymaon, Dolicaon, Darius, Elei, Enyo, 
Eous, Echlon, Eleus, Endymioneus, Erebeus, Erectheus, Hyperion, Gala- 
tea, Giganteus, Heraclea, Hippodamla, Hypetaon, lolaus, Iphigenia, 
Ixlon, Ilithyia, Imaon, Laodamla, Lycaon, Latous, Lesbous, Machaon, 
Mausoleum, Medea, Menelaus, Mathlon, Methlon, Myrtous, Orion, 
Orithyla, Orpheus, Ophyon, Pallanteum, Peneus, Penthesilea, Phcfibeus, 
Pandlon, Protesilaus, Pyreneus, Sardous, Paphagea, Poppea, Thalia. 

Note. Eus, in the termination of Greek proper names, is commonly 
a diphthong ; as, Briareus, CeneuSy Enlpeus^ Idomeneus, Macdreus, Mene- 
ceus, Metereus, Orpheus^ Pentheslleus, Perseus, Theseus. See § 283, 
Exc. 6, Note 2. But in those which in Greek are written siog (eios), eus 
forms two syllables ; as, Alpheus. So also in adjectives in eus, whether of 
Greek or Latin origin ; as, Erebeus, Erectheus, Orpheus. 



QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 

A final. 

^2Q4:. 1. ^ final, in words declined, is short; as, 
musa^ templa, capita, Tydea, Thus, 

Musd mihi causas memdra; quo numine laeso Virg. 

Exc A final is long in the ablative of the first declension, 
and in the vocative of Greek nouns in as ; as, 

Musd,fundd; Mnea, O Palla. The vocative AncMsd (iEn. 3, 475), 
also, has the final a long. 

2. A final, in words not declined, is long; as, am5, 
frustrd, anted, ergd, intra. Thus, 

Extra fortunam est quidquid donatur amicis. Mart. 

Exc. A final is short in ejd, ltd, quid, and in putd, when used adverbi- 
ally. It is sometimes short in the preposition contra, and in numerals 
ending in ginta ; as, triginta, &,c. In postea, it is common. 

A final is also short in the names of Greek letters; as, alphd. 
hetd,&c. > 7 r 9 



2?6 PROSODY.-— qUANTIXr OF FINAL SYLLABLES^ 

E jinah 
^ 295. E final is short ; as, naie, patre^ ipse, curre. 
regere, nempe, ante. Thus, 

Incipej parve puer, risu cognoscere matrem. Virg. 
Exc. 1. E final is long in nouns of the first and fifth de- 
clensions ; as, 

Calliope, Tydide, fide. So also re and die, with their compounds 
quare, hodie, pridie, postridie, quotidie. In like manner Greek vocatives 
in e, from nouns in es, of the third declension ; as, Achille, HippmnenS , 
The e is also long in the ablative /ame, originally of the fifth declension. 

Exc. 2. E final is long in Greek neuters plural j as, cete^ meU^ pelage^ 
Tempe. 

Exc. 3. In the second conjugation, e final is long in the 
second person singular of the imperative active; as, docif 
mone ; — but it is sometimes short in cave, vale, and vide. 
Exc. 4. In monosyllables, e final is long ; as, 
e, we, U, se, n€ (lest or not) , but the enclitics que, we, ve, ce, &c., as 
they are not used alone, have e short, according to tlie rule ; as, neque, 
kujusce, suapte. 

Exc. 5. E final is long in adverbs formed from adjectives 
of the first and second declensions ; as, 

placide, pulckre, valde for vaMde, maxlme ; but it is short in hene, male, 
inferne, and superne. 

Exc. 6. Fere,ferme, and ohe, have the final e long. 

I final. 
^ 296. / final is long ; as, domini, fill, classl, doceri^ 
$1. Thus, 

Quid dominl facie nt, audent cvim talia fures. Virg, 

Exc. 1. / final is common in mihi, tihi, sihi, ihi, and uhi. 

In nisi, quasi, and cui, when a dissyllable, it is also common, but usually 
short. In utinam and utique, it is short, and rarely in uti. 

Exc. 2. / final is short in the dative singular of Greek nouns of the 
third declension, which increase in the genitive ; as, PaUddi, Menoid^, 
Tetkyi. 

Exc. 3. / final is short in Greek vocatives singular of the third de- 
clension; as, Alexi ; Daphni, Pari. But it is long in vocatives firom 
Greek nouns in is, -entos ; as, Simoi. 

Exc. 4. / final is short in Greek datives and ablatives plural in si, 
or, before a vowel, -sin; as, Dryasl, heroisi, Trodsin. 

O final. 
<§> 297. O final is common ; as. virgo, amo, quando. 
Thus, 

Ergo metu capiti Scylla est inimica paterno. Virg. 
Ergo soilicitee tu causa, pecunia, vita es ! Prop. 



PROSODY. Q,UANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 277 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long ; as, o, do, pro- 

Exc. 2. O final is long in the dative and ablative singular ; 
as, domino^ regno, bono, suo, illo, eo. 

It is also long in ablatives used as adverbs ; as, certo, falso, merUo, eo, 
quo ; to which may be added ergo (for the sake of). 

Rem. 1. The gerund in do, in the later poets, has sometimes o 
short; us, vigilando. Juv. 

Rem, 2. The final o in cito is short : in modo, it is common, but short 
in its compounds ; as, dummodo, postmodo, &c. It is also common in 
adeo, ideo, postremo, sero, and vera. In illlco, profecto, and suhito, it is 
found short. 

Exc. 3. O final is short in immo, and common in idcirco, porro, and 
retro. 

Exc. 4. O final, in Greek nouns written with an omega, is long ; as, 
Clio, Dido ; Atho and Androgeo (gen). 

Note. The final o of verbs is almost always long in poets of or near 
the Augustan age ; they, however, shorten it in scio, nescio, and spondeo. 
Later poets make the o short in many other verbs. 

TJ JinaL 

<5> 298. 1. U final is long; as, vultu^ cornuy Panthuy 
dictu. Thus, 

Vultu quo coelum tempestatesque serenat. Virg. 

Exc. Indu and nenu, ancient forms of in and non, have u short. U is 
also short in terminations in us short, when s is removed by elision ; as, 
contentu', for contentus. See § 305, 2. 

Y final, 
2. y final is short; as, Moly, Tiphy. Thus, 

Moly vocant superi : nigrci radlce tenetur. Ovid. 
Y, in the dative Tethy,he\ng formed by contraction, is long. § 283, III. 

B, D, L, W^ R, T, final 

^ 299. 1 . Final syllables ending in &, rf, Z, n, r, and t, 
are short ; as, ab,iUud, consul, carmen, pater, caput. Thus, 

Ipse docet quid agam. Fas est et ab hoste doceri. Ovid, 
Obstupuit simul ipse, simul perculsus Achates. Virg, 
JVomen Arionium Siculas impleverdt urbes. Ovid. 
Dum loquor, horror habet *, parsque est meminisse doloris. Id. 
Exc. 1. L. Sal, sol, and nil, are long. 
Exc. 2. N. En, non, quin, and sin, are long. 
Exc. 3. In Greek nouns, nominatives in n (except those 
in on, written v^ith an omicron), masculine accusatives in «w, 
masculine or feminine accusatives in en, and genitives plural 
in on, lengthen the final syllable ; as, 
24 



278 PROSODY. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 

Titdn^ spUn, Saldmin, Orion y Phorcyn; ^nedn, Anchisen^ Calliopen ; 
epigramrridtdn. 

Exc. 4 R. Ah\ (Ether, and nouns in er which form their 
genitive in eris, lengthen the final syllable ; as, 

craUi\ v&r. So also Iher ; but the compound Celtiber has its last sylla- 
ble common. 

Exc. 5. Far, lar, JS^ar, par, cur y Siud fur, sue long. 

Rem. a final syllable ending in t, may be rendered long by a diph- 
thoncr by contraction, or by position ; as, out, ablt for abiit, amdnt. See 
§ 283, II, III, IV. 

M JifiaL 

2. Final m, with the preceding vowel, is almost always cut off, when the 
next word begins with a vowel. See Ecthlipsis, § 305, 2. 

Final syllables ending in m, when it is not cut off, are short ; as, 
Quam laudas, pluma ? cocto nwrn adest honor idem. Hor. 

Hence, the final syllables of cum and circum, in composition, are short; 
as, comedo, circumdgo. 

C final. 

3. Final syllables ending in c are long; as, dc, illuc. 
Thus, 

Macte nova virtute, puer; sic itur ad astra. Virg. 
Exc. J\^ec. donee, fac, are short, and sometimes the pronouns hie and 
hoc in the nominative and accusative. 

AS, ES, and OS, final. 
<§) 300. Final syllables in as, es, and os, are long ; as, 

pietds, amds, quies, mones, honos, viros. Thus, 

Has autem terras, Italique hanc littoris oram. Virg. 
Si modo des illis cultus, similesque paratus. Ovid. 
Nee nos ambitio, nee amor nos tangit habendi. Id. 
Exc. 1. AS. As is short in anas, in Greek nouns whose genitive 
ends in ddis or ados, and in Greek accusatives plural of the third declen- 
sion : as, Areas, Pallas, her das, lampddds. 

To these may be added Latin nouns in as, ados, formed like Greek 
patronymics ; as, Aptpids. 

Exc. 2. ES. Final es is short in nouns and adjectives of 
the third declension which increase short in the genitive ; as, 
hospes, limes, hehes. 

But it is long in ahies, aries, Ceres, paries, and pes. 

Es, in the present tense of sum, and in the preposition penes, is short. 

Es is short in Greek neuters, and in Greek nominatives and vocatives 
plural from nouns of the third declension, which increase in the genitive 
otherwise than in eos j as, cacoethes, Arcades, Troes, Amazones. 

Exc. 3. OS. Os is short in compos, impos, and os (ossis). 

In Greek nouns, os is short in words of the second declension (except 
those whose genitive is in o), in neuters, and in genitives singular j as, 
Jlios Tyros (but Athds) ; chaos, epos, Pallddvs, Tethyos. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; FEET. 279 

IS^ US^ and YS, final 
<§) 30 !• Final syllables in is^ us, and ys, are short ; as, 

turrlSy militiSy amdbls ; pectus j bonus , amdmus ; CapySj Tethys. 
Thus, 

Non apis inde tulit collectos sedula flores. Ovid. 
Serius aut citius sedem properdmus ad unam. Id. 
At CapySj et quorum melior sententia menti. Vlrg. 

Exc. 1. IS. Is is long in plural cases ; as, 
musis, nobis ; omnls, urbis, for omnes, urbes; quls, for queis or quibus. 
Is is long in nouns whose genitives end in itis, iniSj or entis ; as, 
Samnis, Saldinis, Simols. 

Is is long in the second person singular of the present indica- 
tive active of the fourth conjugation ; as, 

audis, nescls. So also in the second persons, Jis, is, sis, vis, veils, and 
their compounds ; as, possis, quamvis, malls, noils, &c. 

Ris, in the future perfect tense, is common ; as, v/deris. 

In the nouns glis and vis, and the adverb gratis, is is long. 

Exc. 2. US. Monosyllables in us are long ; as, grus, rus^ 
plus. 

Us is long in nouns of the third declension which increase 
long, and in the genitive singular, and the nominative, accusa- 
tive, and vocative plural of the fourth declension (§§ 89, Rem., 
and 283, III.) ; as, 

tellus, virtus, incus ; — -fructus. But palus, with the us short, occurs in 
Horace, Art. Poet. 65. 

Us is long in Greek nouns v/ritten in the original with the diphthong 
ovq (ous), whether in the nominative or genitive; as, nom. Amdthus, 
Opus, (Edipus, tripus, Panthus ; gen. Didus, Sapphus. But compounds 
of pus (iTovg), when of the second declension, have us short ; as, polypus. 

Note. The last syllable of every verse (except the ana- 
paestic, and the Ionic a minore) may be either long or short, at 
the option of the poet. 

By this is meant, that, although the measure require a long syllable, a 
short one may be used in its stead ; and a long syllable may be used 
where a short one is required ; as in the following verses, where the short 
syllable ma stands instead of a long one, and the long syllable cu instead 
of a short one : — 

Sanguine^que rrianu crepitantia concutit arma. Ovid. 
Non eget Mauri jaculis, nee arcw. Hor. 



VERSIFICATION. 

FEET. 

<§> 302. A foot is a combination of two or more sylla- 
bles of a certain quantity. 



280 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; METRE. 

Feet are either simple or compound. Simple feet consist of 
two or three syllables ; compound feet of four. 

I. SIMPLE FEET. 

1. Of two Syllables* 

Spondee f two long ; as, .fundunt. 

Pyrrhic^ two short ; as, Deus. 

Trochee, or choree^ .... a long and a short ; as, drmd. 

Iambus J .a short and a long ; as, erdnt. 

2. Of three Syllables. 

Dactyl^ a long and two short ; as, ....... . corpora. 

Anapcest, two short and a long ; as, domini. 

Tribrach, three short ; as, .fdcere. 

MolossuSy three long ; as, contendunt. 

Amphibrach, a short, a long, and a short; as, ... .dmore. 

Amphimdcer, or Cretic, a long, a short, and a long; as, ... ,cdstitds. 

Bacchlus, a short and two long ; as, CdtOnes. 

Antibacchius, two long and a short ; as, Romdnus. 

II. COMPOUND FEET. 

Dispondee, a double spondee ; as, conflizerunt. 

Proceleusmatic, a double Pyrrhic ; as. homlnibus. 

Ditrochee, a double trochee ; as, comprobdvit. 

Diiambus, a double iambus ; as, dmdverdnt. 

Greater Ionic, a spondee and a Pyrrhic; as, correximus. 

Smaller Ionic, a P3^rrhic and a spondee ; as, properdbdnt. 

Choriambus , a choree and an iambus ; as, terrif leant. 

Antispast, an iambus and a choree ; as, ddhasisse. 

First epitrit, an iambus and a spondee ; as,. . . . .dmdverunt. 

Second epitrit, a trochee and a spondee ; as, .... .conditores. 

Third epitrit, a spondee and an iambus ; as, discordids. 

Fourth epitrit, a spondee and a trochee ; as,. . . . , ,ddduxistis. 

First pceon, a trochee and a Pyrrhic ; as, temporibus. 

Second pceon, .... .an iambus and a Pyrrhic ; as, potentid. 

Third pceon, a Pyrrhic and a trochee ; as, dnlmdtus. 

Fourth pcBon, a Pyrrhic and an iambus ; as,. . . , .celeritds. 

Those feet are called isochronous, which consist of equal times ; as the 
spondee, the dactyl, the anapsest, and the proceieusmatic, one long time 
being considered equal to two short. 



METRE. 

<§) 303. Metre is an arrangement of syllables and feet 
according to certain rules. 

In this general sense, it comprehends either an entire verse, a part 
of a verse, or any number of verses. 



PROSODY. — versification; verses. 281 

Metre is divided into dactylic, anapcDstic, iambic, trochaic, 
choriambic, and Ionic. These names are derived from the 
original or fundamental foot employed in each. 

A metre, or measure, in a specific sense, is either a single foot, 
or a combination of two feet. In dactylic, choriambic, and 
Ionic metre, a measure consists of one foot ; in the remainder, 
of two feet. 

VERSES. 

<§) 304, A verse is a certain number of feet, arranged 
in a regular order, and constituting a line of poetry. 

1. Two verses are called a distich; a half verse, a hemistich. 

2. Verses are of different kinds, denominated sometimes, like 
the different species of metre, from the foot which chiefly pre- 
dominates in them ; as, dactylic, iambic, &/C. ; — sometimes from 
the number of feet or metres which they contain ; as, senarius, 
consisting of six feet ; octonarius, of eight feet ; monometer^ 
consisting of one measure ; dimeter, of two ; trimeter, tetram- 
eter, pentameter, hexameter; — sometimes from a celebrated 
author who used a particular species ; as, Sapphic, Anacreontic, 
Alcaic, Asclepiadic, 6lc. ; — and sometimes from other circum- 
stances. 

3. A verse, with respect to the metres which it contains, may 
be complete, deficient, or redi.ndant. 

A verse which is complete is called acatalectic, 

A verse which is deficien*, if it wants one syllable at the end, 
is called catalectic; if it wants a whole foot or half a metre, it 
is called brachy catalectic, 

A verse which wants a syllable at the beginning, is called 
acephalous, 

A verse which has a redundant syllable or foot, is called 
hyper catalectic or hypermeter. 

4. Hence, the complete name of every verse consists of three 
terms — the first referring to the species, the second to the num- 
ber of metres, and the third to the ending ; as, the dactylic 
trimeter catalectic. 

5. A verse or portion of a verse (measured from the begin- 
ning of a line) which contains three half feet, or a foot and a 
half, i^ called the triemimeris ; if it contains five half feet, or 
two feet and a half, it is called the penthemimms ; if seven half 
feet, or three feet and a half, the hepthemimeris ; if nine half 
feet, or four feet and a half, the ennehemimeris. 

24* 



232 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; FIGURES. 

6. ScANxixG is the dividing of a verse into the feet of which 
it is composed. 

In order to scan correctly, it is necessary to know the quantity of each 
syllable J and also to understand the following poetic usages, which are 
sometimes called 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 

SYNALCEPHA. 

<§> 305. 1. A final vowel or diphthong is cut off in scan- 
ning, when the following word begins with a vowel. This is 
called synalcepha. 

Thus, terra antiqua is read terr^ antzqua ; DardanidcB infensi, Dardanid' 
infensi ; xeiito hue, venV uc. So, 

Quidve moror ? si omnes uno ordine habetis Achivos,.... Virg. 
which is scanned thus — 

Quidve moror ? s' omnes un' ordin' habetis Achivos. 
The interjections O, Jieu, ah, proJi, vcb, vali, are not elided ; 

as, _ _ 

et de Latia, et de gente Sabin^. Ovid. 
But 0, when not elided, is sometimes made short ; as, 

Te Cory don 6 Alexi ; trahit sua quemque voluptas. Virg. 
Other long vowels and diphthongs sometimes remain unelided, in which 
case they are commonly made short ; as, 

Victor apud rapidum Simoenta sub Ilio alto. Virg. 
Anni tempore eo qui Etesim esse feruntur. Lucr. 
Ter sunt condti imponere Pelio Ossam. Virg. 
Glauco et Panope&j et Inoo Melicertas. Id. 
Rarely a short vowel, also, remains without elision ; as, 

Et vera incessu patuit ded. Ille ubi matrem.... Virg. 
For synalospha at the end of a line, see Synapheia, § 307, 3. 

ECTHLIPSIS. 
2. Final m, with the preceding vowel, is cut off when the fol- 
lowing word begins with a vowel. This is called ecthlipsis. 
Thus, 

O curas hominum, O quantum est in rebus inane I Pers. 
w^hich is thus scanned, 

O curas homin' O quant' est in rebus inane. 
Monstrz^wi horrendzzm, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. Virg, 
This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets } as, 

Corporum officium est quoniam premere omnia deorsum. Lucr. 

See § 299, 2. 
Final s, also, with the preceding vowel, is sometimes elided hy the 
early poets before a vowel, and sometimes s alone before a consonant ; as, 
content' atque (Enn.), for contentus atque ; omnibu' rebus. (Lucr.) So, 
Tum laterdlV dolor, certissimu' nunclu' mortis Lucil. 
For ecthlipsis at the end of a line, see Synapheia, § 307, 3. 



PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION ; FIGURES, 283 

SYN^ERESIS. 

^ 306. 1. Two vowels which are usually separated, are 
sometimes contracted into one syllable. This is called syiuBr^ 

€SIS, 

Thus, in such case, 

PhaCtlwn is pronounced PhcEthon ; alveo, alvo ; Orphea, Orpha, So, 
Aured, percussum virga, versumque venenis. Virg. 
,Eosdem habuit secum, quibus est elata, capillos. Prop. 

(1.) Synseresis is frequent in ii, iidem, iisdem, dii, diisj dein, deinceps, 
deinde, deest, deerat^ deer o, deer it, deesse ; as, 

Praecipitatur aqiiis, et aquis nox surgit ab isdem. Ovid. 
Sint Maecenates ; non deerunt, Flacce, Marones. Mart. 

Cui and huic are usually monosyllables. 

(2.) When two vowels in compound words are read as one syllable, the 
former may rather be considered as elided than as united with the latter ; 
as, e in anteambulo, anteire, antehac, dehinc, mekerculCy &c., and a in con- 
traire. 

(3.) The syllable formed by the union of two vowels often retains the 
quantity of the latter vowel, whether long or short; as, ahiete, ariete, 
abiegnce, vindemidtor, omnia; genua, tenuis, pituita, jiwmdrum, &c. In 
«uch examples, the i and u are pronounced like initial ?/ and lo ; as, abyete, 
omn-ya, temcis,pitioita, &c.; and, like consonants, they have, with another 
consonant, the power of lengthening a preceding short vowel, as in the 
above examples. 

In Statins, the word tenuiore occurs, in which three vowels are united 
in pronunciation ; thus, ten-icio-re. 

(4.) Sometimes, after a synaloBpha, two vowels suffer synaeresis; as, 
^tellio et, pronounced stell-yet. 

(5.) If only one of the vowels is mritten, the contraction is called 
crasis ; as, di, consili, for dii, consilii. 

DliERESIS. 

2. A syllable is often divided into two syllables. This is 
called dicsresis. Thus, 

auldt, Trola, silua, suddent ; for aulcB, Trola or Troja, silva, suaderU. 
So, 

^thereum sensum, atque avrdt simplicis ignem. Virg. 
Et claro siluas cernes Aquilone moveri. Id. 
Grammatici certant; et adhuc sub iudice lis est. Hor. 
So in Greek words originally written with a diphthong ; as, elegetta, for 
elegla. 

SYSTOLE. 

<§) 307. 1. A syllable which is long by nature or by posi 
tion, is sometimes shortened. This is called 5y5^d/e ; as, 

vide' n, for videsne, in which e is naturally long; satVn, for satisne, in 
which i is long by position ; — hodie, for hoc die ; mvltimodis, for multls 
modis. So, 

Ducere multimodis voces, et flectere cantus. Lucr. 
(1.) By the omission of j after ab, ad, ob, sub, and re, in compound 



284 PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION ; ARSIS AND THESIS, 

words, those prepositions retain their short quantity, which would other- 
wise be made long by position; as, dhici, ddicit, obicis, ^c. Thus, 
Si quid nostra tuis adtcit vexatio rebus. Mart. 

In like manner^ by rejecting the consonant of the preposition, dperio^ 
operio, omitto, &c., are formed by systole. 

(2.) The third person plural of certain perfects is said by some to be 
shortened by systole ; as, steterunt, tulerunt, &c. ; but others believe that 
these irregularities have arisen from the errors of transcribers, or the 
carelessness of writers. , 

DIASTOLE. 

2. A syllable naturally short, is sometimes lengthened. This 
is called diastole. 

It occurs most frequently in proper names and in compounds of re; asy 
Priamldes, religio, &c. Thus, 

Hanc tibi Prlamides mitto, Ledaea, salutem. Ovid. 

R^ligione patrum multos servata per annos. Virg^. 
Some editors double the consonant after re. 
Diastole is sometimes called ectdsis. 

SYNAPHEIA. 

3. Verses are sometimes connected together so that the first 
syllable of a verse has an influence on the final syllable of that 
which precedes, either by position, synalcepha, or ecthlipsis. 
See §§ 283 and 305. This is called synapJieia, 

This figure was most frequent in anapsestic verse, and in the Ionic a 
minor e. 

The following lines will illustrate its effect : — 

Prseceps silvas raoYi.ies(\\\.e fugit 
Citus Actaeon. Sen. 
The i in the final syllable of fugit, which is naturally short, is made 
long by position before the following consonants. 

Omnia Mercurio similis vocemque colore m^we 

Et flavos Virg. 

Dissidens plebi numero beator^^m 
Eximit virtus. Hor. 
In the former of these examples, synapheia and synaloepha are com- 
bined; in the latter, synapheia and ecthlipsis. 

By synapheia, the parts of a compound word were sometimes divided 
between two verses ; as, 

si non offenderet unum- 

Quemque poetarum limaB labor et mora.... Hor. 
Rem. The poets, also, often make use of some other figures, which, 
however, are not peculiar to them. Such are prosthesis^ aphceresis^ syncope^ 

renthesis, apocope, paragoge, tmesis^ antithesis, and metathesis. See 
322. 

ARSIS AND THESIS. 

^ 308. In pronouncing the syllables of verse, the voice 
rises and falls alternately at regular intervals. This regular 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; CiESURA. 285 

alternate elevation and depression of the voice is called rhythm. 
The elevation of the voice is called arsis, its depression thesis. 
These terms sometimes, also, designate the parts of a foot on 
which the elevation or depression falls. 

L The natural arsis is on the long syllable of a foot : con- 
sequently, in a foot composed wholly of long, or of short sylla- 
bles, considered in itself, the place of the arsis is undetermined. 
But when another foot is sulDstituted for the fundamental foot 
of a metre, the arsis of the former is determined by that of the 
latter. 

Hence, a spondee, in trochaic or dactylic metre, has the arsis on the first 
syllable; but in iambic or anapaestic metre, it has it on the last. 

2. The arsis is either equal in duration to the thesis, or twice 
as long. 

Thus, in the dactyl, — v^ v-/, and anapaest, \^ v-/ — , they are equal ; in 
the trochee, — v^, and iambus, \^ — , they are unequal. This difference in 
the duration of the arsis and thesis constitutes the difference of rhythm. 

3. The stress of voice which falls upon the arsis of a foot, is 
called the ictus. When a long syllable in the arsis of a foot is 
resolved into two short ones, the ictus falls upon the former. 

Note 1. Some suppose that the terms arsis and thesis, as used by the 
ancients, denoted respectively the rising and falling of the hand in beat- 
ing time, and that the place of the thesis was the syllable which received 
the ictus. 

Note 2. As the ancient pronunciation of Latin is not now understood, 
writers differ in regard to the mode of reading verse. According to some, 
the accent of each word should always be preserved ; while others direct 
that the stress of voice should be laid on the arsis of the foot, and that no 
regard should be paid to the accent. 

It is generally supposed that the final letters elided by synaloepha and 
ecthlipsis, though omitted in scanning, were pronounced in reading verse. 



C^SURA. 

<§> 309. Ccesura is the separation, by the ending of a 
word, of syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

Caesura is of three kinds : — 1, o^ the foot; 2, oftherAy^Am; 
and 3, of the verse. 

1. Csesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot 
is completed ; as, 

Silves-| trem tenu- 1 i Mu- | sam medi- 1 taris a- 1 vena. Virg. 

2. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from 
the thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and 
fourth feet of the preceding line. 



286 PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION ; DACTYLIC METRE. 

Caesura of the rhythm allows a final syllable naturally short, to 
stand instead of a long one, it being lengthened by the ictus ; 
as, 

Pectori- 1 lus inhi- 1 ans spi- 1 rantia | consulit | exta. Virg. 
This occurs chiefly in hexameter verse. 

Csesura-of the foot and of the verse do not of themselves lengthen a 
short syllable J but they often coincide with that of the rhythm. 

3. Caesura of the verse is such a division of a line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a convenient pause or rest, without 
injury to the sense or harmony. 

The caesura of the verse is often called the cce^ural pause. 
In several kinds of verse, its place is fixed ; in others, it may fail 
in more than one place, and the choice is left to the poet. Of 
the former kind is the pentameter, of the latter the hexameter. 

The proper place of the cassural pause will be treated of, so far as shall 
be necessary, under each species of verse. 

Remark. The effect of the caesura is \ o connect the different words 
harmoniously together, and thus to give smoothness, grace, and sweetness, 
to the verse. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

DACTYLIC METRE. 

<§) 310. LA hexameter^ or heroic verse, consists of six 
feet. Of these the fifth is a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, 
and each of the other four either a dactyl or a spondee ; 

as. 

At tuba I terribi- 1 lem soni- 1 tum procul | ^re ca- 1 noro. Virg. 
Inton- 1 si cri- 1 nes Ion- j ga cer- 1 vice flu- 1 ebant. Tibull. 
Ludere i quse vel- 1 lem cala- 1 mo per- 1 mlsit a- 1 grestl. Virg. 

1. The fifth foot' is sometimes a spondee, and the verse in 
such case is called spondaic ; as, 

Cara de- 1 um sobo- 1 les mag- 1 nriim Jovis | Incre- 1 mentum. Virg. 
In such verses, the fourth foot is commonly a dactyl, and the fifth should 
not close with the end of a word. Spondaic lines are thought to be espe- 
cially adapted to the expression of grave and solemn subjects. 

2. A light and rapid movement is produced by the frequent 
recurrence of dactyls; a slow and heavy one by that of spon- 
dees ; as, 

Quadrupe- 1 dante pu- 1 trem soni- 1 tu quatit | ungiila | campum. Virg. 

Illi in- 1 ter se- 1 se mag- 1 na vi | brachia | tollunt. Id. 

Variety in the use of dactyls and spondees in successive lines, has an. 
agreeable effect. Hexameter verse commonly ends in a word of two or 
three syllables. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; DACTYLIC METRE. 287 

3. The beauty and harmony of hexameter verse depend much on due 
attention to the caesura. (See § 309.) A hne in which it is neglected is 
destitute of poetic beauty, and can hardly be distinguished from prose ; as, 

Romae | moenia | terruit | impiger | Hannibal | armis. Enn. 

4. The csesural pause most approved in heroic poetry is 
that which occurs after the arsis in the third foot. This is par- 
ticularly distinguished as the heroic ccBSura. Thus, 

At domus I interi- 1 or 1 1 re- 1 gali | splendida | luxu. Virg. 

5. Instead of the preceding, a csesura in the thesis of the 
third foot, or after the arsis of the fourth, was also approved as 
heroic ; as, 

Infan- 1 dum re- 1 gina 1 1 ju- 1 bes reno- 1 vare do- 1 lorem. Virg. 

Inde to- 1 ro pater | Mne- 1 as || sic | orsus ab | alto. Id. 
When the cassural pause occurs, as in the latter example, after the arsis 
of the fourth foot, another but slighter one is often found in the second 
foot ; as. 
Prima te- 1 net, 1 1 plan- 1 suque vo- 1 lat | j frerai- 1 tuque se- 1 cundo. Virg. 

6. The csesura after the third foot was least approved ; as, 
Cui non | dictus Hy- 1 las puer 1 1 et La- 1 tonia | Delos. Virg. 

The caesural pause between the fourth and fifth feet is termed the 
bucolic caesura. 

Note 1. The caesura after the arsis is sometimes called the masculine 
caesura ; that in the thesis, the feminine or trochaic^ as a trochee immedi- 
ately precedes. 

Note 2. In the principal caesura of the verse, poets frequently intro- 
duce a pause in the sense, which must be attended to, in order to deter- 
mine the place of the caesural pause. For in the common place for the 
caesura in the third foot, there is often a caesura of the foot; while, in the 
fourth foot, a still more marked division occurs. In this case, the latter is 
to be considered as the principal csesura, and distinguished accordingly ', 
as, 

Belli I ferra- 1 tos pos- 1 tes, || por- 1 tasque re- 1 fregit. Hor. 

II. The Priapean is usually accounted a species of hexam- 
eter. It is so constructed as to be divisible into two portions of 
three feet each, having generally a trochee in the first and 
fourth foot, and an amphimacer in the third ; as, 

O CO- 1 lonia I quae cupis 1 1 ponte | luderg | longo. CatidL 
It is, however, more properly considered as choriambic metre, consisting 
of alternate Glyconics and Pherecratics. See § 316, IV. V. 

Note. A regular hexameter verse is termed Priapean, when it is so 
constructed as to be divisible into two portions of three feet each ; as, 
Tertia | pars pa- 1 tri data | pars data | tertia | patri. Catull. 
See above, 6. 

§ 311. III. A pentameter verse consists of five feet. 
It is generally, however, divided, in scanning, into two hemis- 
tichs, the first consisting of two feet, either dactyls or spondees, 



288 PROSODY. ^VERSIFICATION ; ANAP.ESTIC METRE. 

followed by a long syllable ; the last of two dactyls, also follow- 
ed by a long syllable ; as, 

Natu- 1 ree sequi- 1 tur || semina 1 quisque su- 1 ffi. Prop. 
Carmim- 1 bus vl- 1 ves 1 1 tempus in | omne me- 1 Is. Ovid. 

1 . According to the more ancient and correct mode of 
scanning pentameter verse, it consists of five feet, of which 
the first and second may each be a dactyl or a spondee ; the 
third is always a spondee ; and the fourth and fifth are ana- 
paests ; as^ 

Natu- 1 TEB sequi- 1 tur 1 1 sem- 1 ina quis- 1 que sueb. 
Carmini- 1 bus vi- 1 ves 1 1 tem- 1 pus in om- | ne meis. 

2. The caesura, in pentameter verse, always occurs after the 
penthemimeris, i. e. at the close of the first hemistich. It very 
rarely lengthens a short syllable. 

3. The pentameter rarely ends with a word of three syllables. In 
Ovid, it usually ends with a dissyllable. 

This species of verse is seldom used, except in connection with hexam- 
eter, a line of each recurring alternately* This combination is called 
elegiac verse. Thus, 

Flebilis indignos, Elege'ia, solve capillos. 

Ah nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit ! Ovid. 

<§> 312. IV. The tetrameter a priore, or Alcmanian dac' 
tylic tetrameter J consists of the first four feet of a hexameter, 
of which the fourth is always a dactyl ; as, 

Garrula | per ra- 1 mos Svis | obstrepit. Sen. 

V. The tetrameter a posteriore, or spondaic tetrameter, con- 
sists of the last four feet of a hexameter ; as, 

Ibimus, I O soci- 1 I, comi- 1 tesque. Hot. 

VI. The dactylic trimeter consists of the last three feet of a 
hexameter ; as, 

Grato j Pyrrha sub | antro. Hor. 
But this kind of verse is more properly included in choriambic metre. 
See § 316, V. 

VII. The trimeter catalectic, or Archilochian penthemimeris, 
consists of the first five half feet of a hexameter, but the first 
two feet are commonly dactyls ; as, 

Pulvis et I umbra su- 1 mus. Hor. 

VIII. The dactylic dimeter, or Adonic, consists of two feet, 
a dactyl and a spondee ; as, 

Risit A- 1 polio. Hor. 

ANAP^STIC METRE. 

<§» 313. I. The anapcBstic monometer consists of two ana- 
paests ; as, 

Ululas- 1 se canes. Sen. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; IAMBIC METRE. 289 

II. The anapcEstic dimeter consists of two measures, or four 
anapaests ; as, 

Pharetrffi- 1 que graves | date sse- 1 v^ ferb Sen. 

The first foot in each measure of anapogstic metre was very often 
changed to a dactyl or a spondee, and the second foot often to a spondee, 
and, in a few instances, to a dactyl. 

Anapaestic verses are generally so constructed that each measure ends 
with a word, so that they may be written and read in lines of one, two, 
or more measures. 

IAMBIC METRE. 

<§> 314. I. The iambic trimeter, or senarius, consists of 
three iambic measures, or six iambic feet ; as, 

Phase-] lus il- f le, || quem | vide- ] tis, hos- 1 pites CatulL 

The caesura commonly occurs after the fifth semi-foot. 

The pure iambic measure was seldom used. To give to this 
metre greater slowness and dignity, spondees were introduced 
into the first, third, and fifth places; and in every foot except 
the last, which was always an iambic, a long syllable was often 
changed into two short ones, so that an anapaest or a dactyl 
was used for a spondee, and a tribrach for an iambus ; as, 
Quo, quo i sceles- 1 ti rui- 1 tis ? aut | cur dex- 1 terls.... Hor, 
Aliti- 1 bus at- 1 que cam- 1 bus homi- 1 cida Hec- 1 torem Id. 

Sometimes, also, a proceleusmatic was used in the first place for a 
spondee. The writers of comedy, satire, and fable, admitted the spondee 
and its equivalents (the dactyl and anapaest) into the second and fourth 
places, as well as the first, third, and fifth. 

II. The scazon, or cJioliambus (lame iambic), is the iambic 
trimeter, with a spondee in the sixth foot, and generally an 
iambus in the fifth ; as, 

Cur In 1 thea- | trum, Cato, | seve- | re ve- | nlsti ? 
An ide- 1 6 tan- | turn ven- 1 eras | ut ex- 1 Ires ? Mart. 
This species of verse is also called Hipponactic trimeter. 

III. The iambic tetrameter, or octonarius, called also 
quadratuSj a measure used by the comic poets, consists of four 
iambic measures, subject to the same variations as the iambic 
trimeter (I.) ; as. 

Nunc hic I dies | aliam | vitam af- | fert, all- 1 os mo- | res pos- 1 tulat. Ter. 

IV. The iambic tetrameter catalectic^ or Hipponactic, is the 
iambic tetrameter, wanting the last syllable, and having always 
an iambus in the seventh place, but admitting in the other places 
the same variations as the trimeter and tetrameter ; as, 

Depren- i sa na- | vis In [ marl | vesa- 1 men- I te ven- 1 to. Catvll. 

25 



290 PROSODY. — versification; trochaic metre, 

V. The iambic trimeter catalectic, or Archilochian, is the 
iambic trimeter (I.), wanting the final syllable. Like the com- 
mon iambic trimeter, it admits a spondee into the first and 
third places, but not into the fifth ; as, 

Voca- 1 tus at- | que non | voca- | tus ati- 1 dit. Hor. 
Trahunt- 1 que sic- | cas mach- j mee ) carl- ] nas. Id. 

VI. The iambic dimeter consists of two iambic measures, 
with the same variations as the iambic trimeter (I.) ; as, 

Forti I seque- f mur pec- 1 tore. Hor. 
Canidi- 1 a trac- I tavit \ dapes. Id. 
Vide- 1 re prope- | rantes | domum. Id. 
The iambic dimeter is also called the Archilochian dimeter. 

VII. The iambic dimeter hypermeter, called also Archilo- 
ehiarij is the iambic dimeter, with an additional syllable at the 
end; as, 

Rede- 1 'git ad | veros^ | timo- | res. Hor. 
Horace always makes the third foot a spondee. 

VIII. The iambic dimeter acephalous is the iambic dimeter, 
wanting the first syllable ; as, 

Non I ebiir | neque au- 1 reum Hor. 

This kind of verse is sometimes scanned as a catalectic trochaic dimeter. 
See § 315, IV. 

IX. The iambic dimeter catalectic, or Anacreontic, is the 
iambic dimeter, wanting the final syllable, and having always 
an iambus in the third foot ; as, 

IJt tl- ! gris or- I ha gna- 1 tis. Sen. 

X. The Galliambus consists of two iambic dimeters catalec- 
tic, the last of which wants the final syllable. 

The first foot is generally a spondee or an anapsest ; the catalectic syl- 
lable at the end of the first dimeter is long, and the second foot of the 
second dimeter is cominonly a tribrach ; as, 

Super al- 1 ta vec- 1 tus A- 1 tys 1 1 celer! | rate ma- ] ria= Catull. 

The caesura uniformly occurs at the end of the first dimeter. 

TROCHAIC METRE. 

^ olo. Trochaic verses bear a near affinity to iambics. The addi- 
tion or retrenchment of a syllable at the beginning of a pure iambic verse, 
renders it pure trochaic , and the addition or retrenchment of a syllable at 
the beginning of a pure trochaic line, renders it pure iambic, with the 
deficiency or redundancy of a syllable in each case at the end of the 
verse. 

I. The trochaic tetrameter catalectic is the most common 
trochaic metre. It consists of seven feet, followed by a cata- 
lectic syllable. In the odd places, it admits a tribrach, but in 
the seventh a trochee only. In the even places, besides the 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; CHORIAMBIC METRE. 291 

tribrach, it admits also a spondee, a dactyl, an anapaest, and 
sometimes a proceleusmatic ; as, 

Jussus I est in- 1 ermis | Ire : | j pQrus | Ire | jussiis | est. Catull. 

Roinu- 1 leeas | ipsa | fecit || cum Sa- 1 binis | nupti- ] as. hi. 

Danli- 1 des, co- 1 ite ; | vestras || hic di- 1 es quae- 1 rit mS- 1 nus. Sen. 

'ThQpure trochaic verse was rarely used. The caesural pause uniformly 
occurs after the fourth foot. The comic writers introduced the spondee 
and its equivalent feet into the odd places. 

The complete trochaic tetrameter properly consists of eight feet, all 
trochees, subject, however, to the same variations as the catalectic 
tetrameter ; as, 

Ipse I summis | saxis | f ixus | aspe- 1 ris, e- 1 visce- | ratCis. Enn. 

IL The Sapphic verse, invented by the poetess Sappho, con- 
sists of five feet — the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the 
third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees ; as, 
Inte- 1 ger.vi-| tee, |] scele- 1 risque | purus. Hor. 

Sappho, and, after her example, Catullus, sometimes made the second 
foot a trochee. 

Those Sapphics are most harmonious which have the caesura after the 
fifth semi-foot. 

Note. In the composition of the Sapphic stanza, a word is sometimes 
divided between the end of the third Sapphic, and the beginning of the 
Adonic which follows; as, 

Labi- 1 tur ri- 1 pa Jove | non pro- | bante ux- 
orius I amnis". Hor. 
This occurs only in Catullus and Horace ; and it has been thought by 
some that such lines should be considered as one verse of seven feet, the 
fifth foot being either a spondee or a trochee. 

III. The PhalcBcian verse consists of five feet — the first a 
spondee, the second a dactyl, and the three others trochees ; as, 

Non est | vivere, | sed va- 1 iere | vita. Mart. 

Instead of a spondee as the first foot, Catullus sometimes uses a trochee 
or an iambus. This writer also sometimes uses a spondee in the second 
place. 

The Phalcecian verse is sometimes called hendecasyUahic, as consisting^ 
of eleven syllables ; but that name does not exclusively belong to it. 

IV. The trochaic dimeter catalectic consists of three feet, 
properly all trochees, but admitting in the second place a spon- 
dee or a dactyl ; as, 

Non e- 1 bur ne- 1 que aure- | um. Hor. 
Note. This measure is the same as the acephalous iambic dimeter 
(see § 314, VIII.), and it is not important whether it be regarded as 
iambic or trochaic. 

CHORIAMBIC METRE. 

<§>316. I. The choriamhic pentameter consists of a spon- 
dee, three clioriambi, and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne I qu©sierls, | scire nefas | quern mihT, quem | tibl.,.. Hor. 



292 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; IONIC METRE. 

II. The choriamhic tetrameter consists of three choriambi, or 

feet of equal length, and a Bacchms ; as, 

Omne nemus | cum fluvils, | omne canat | proftindum. Claud. 
In this verse Horace substituted a spondee for the iambus 
contained in the first choriambus ; as, 

Te deos o- 1 ro^ Sybarin | cur properes | amando.... Hor. 

III. The Asclepiadic tetrameter (invented by the poet Ascle- 
piades) consists of a spondee, two choriambi, and an iambus ; 
as, 

Meece- 1 nas, atavis || edite reg- 1 ibus. Hbr. 
This form is invariably observed by Horace } but other poets sometimes, 
though rarely, make the first foot a dactyl. 

The caesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 
This measure is sometimes scanned as a dactylic pentameter 
catalectic. See § 311, III. Thus, 

Maece- 1 nas, ata- 1 vis || edite | regibiis. 

IV. The cTioriamhic trimeter, or Glyconic (invented by the 
poet Glyco), consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and an iam- 
bus ; as, 

Sic te I diva potens | Cyprl.... Hor. 
The first foot is sometimes an iambus or a trochee. 
When the first foot is a spondee, the other feet are sometimes 
scanned as dactyls. Thus, 

Sic te I diva p6- [ tens Cypri. 

V. The choriamhic trimeter catalectic, or Pherecratic (so 
called from the poet Pherecrates), is the Glyconic deprived of 
its final syllable, and consists of a spondee, a choriambus, and 
a catalectic syllable; as, 

Grato I Pyrrha sub an- 1 tro. Hor. 

The first foot was sometimes a trochee or an iambus. 

When the first foot is a spondee, this measure is sometimes scanned as 
a dactylic trimeter. See 8 312, VI. 

The Pherecratic subjoined to the Glyconic produces the Priapean verse. 
See § 310, II. 

VI. The cJioriambic dimeter consists of a choriambus and a 
Bacchms ; as, 

LydTa die | per omnes. Hor. 

IONIC METRE. 

<§> 317. I. The Ionic a majore, or Sotadic (from the poet 
Sotades), consists of three greater Ionics and a spondee. 

The Ionic feet, however, are often changed into ditrochees, and a long 
syllable into two short ones ; as, 

Has, cum gemi- 1 na compede, | dedicat ca- 1 tenas, 
Saturne, ti- 1 bl Zoilus, | annulos pri-| ores. Mart. 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; COMPOUND METRES. 293 

II. The Ionic a minore consists generally of three or four 
feet^ v/^'/^h are ?11 Tonics d minore ; as, 

Puer ales, | tibi telas, | operosse- 1 que Mmervse.... Hor. 

COMPOUND METRES. 

<§) 318. Compound metre is the union of two species of 
metre in the same verse. 

I. The dactylicO'iamhic metre consists of a dactylic trimeter 
catalectic (§312, VII.) and an iambic dimeter (§314, VI.); 
as, 

Scrlbere | versTcu- 1 los || Smo- 1 re per- | culsum | gravi.... Hor. 

II. The iambico-dactylic metre consists of the same mem- 
bers as the preceding, but in a reversed order ; as, 

Nives- 1 que de- j ducunt | Jovem : || nunc mare, | nunc silii- 1 8b. Hor. 
Note. The members composing this and the preceding species of 
verse are often written in separate verses. 

III. The greater Alcaic consists of two iambic feet, and a 
long catalectic syllable followed by a choriambus, and an iam- 
bus ; as, 

Vides I ut al- 1 ta || stet nive can- 1 dldum. Hor, 
The first foot is often a spondee. 

The CGBsura uniformly occurs after the catalectic syllable. 
This verse is sometimes so scanned as to make the last two feet dactyls. 

IV. The dactylico-trochaic, or ArchilocJiian heptameter^ con- 
sists of the dactylic tetrameter a priore (§ 312), followed by 
three trochees ; as, 

Sdlvitur I acris hi- 1 ems gra- 1 ta vice || v6ris | et Fa- 1 voni. Hor, 
The caesura occurs between the two members. 

V. The dactylico-trochaic tetrameter ^ or lesser Alcaic^ con- 
sists of two dactyls, followed by two trochees ; as^ 

Levia | personu- 1 ere | saxa. Hor. 



COMBINATION OF VERSES IN POEMS. 

<§> 319. A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. 

A poem in which only one kind of verse is employed, is 
called carmen monocolon; that which has two kmdSy dicolon; 
that which has three kinds, tricolon. 

When the poem returns, after the second line, to the same 
verse with which it began, it is called distrophon; when after 
the third line, tristrophon ; and when after the fourth, tetrastr6- 
pJion. 

The several verses which occur before the poem returns to 
25* 



294 PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; HORATIAN METRES. 

the kind of verse with which it began, constitute a stanza or 
strophe, 

A poem consisting of two kinds of verse, when the stanza contains two 
verses, is called dicolon distrophon, (see § 320, Syn. 3;) when it contains 
three, dicolon tristrophon, (Auson. Profess. 21 ;) when four, dicolon tetras- 
trophon, (Syn. 2;) and when five, dicolon pentastrophon. 

A poem consisting of three kinds of verse, when the stanza contains 
three verses, is called tricolon tristrophon, (Syn. 15 ;) when four, tricolon 
tetrastrophon, (Syn. 1.) 

HORATIAN METRES. 

^ 320. The different species of metre used by Horace in 
his lyric compositions are twenty. The various forms in which 
he has employed them, either separate or in conjunction, are 
nineteen, arranged, according to the order of preference given 
to them by the poet, in the following 

SYNOPSIS. 

1. Two greater Alcaics (§318, III.), one Archilochian iam- 
bic dimeter hypermeter (§314, VII.), and one lesser Alcaic 
(§ 318, V.) ; as, 

Vides, ut alta stet nive candidum 
Soracte, nee jam sustineant onus 
Silvse laborantes, geluque 

Flumina const! terint acuto. {Lib. 1, 9.) 

This is called the Horatian stanza, because it seems to have been a 
favorite with Horace, being used in thirty-seven of his odes. 

2. Three Sapphics (§315, II.) and one Adonic (§312, 
VIII.); as, 

Jam satis terrls nivis atque dlrae 
Grandinis misit pater, et, rubente 
Dextera sacras jaculatiis arces, 

Terruit tirbem. {Lib. 1, 2.) 

3. One Glyconic (§316, IV.) and one Asclepiadic (§316, 
III.) ; as, 

Sic te Diva potens Cypri, 

Sic fratres Helense, lucida sidera.... {Lib. 1, 3.) 

4. One iambic trimeter (§314, I.) and one iambic dimeter 
-(§314, VI.); as, 

I bis Liburnis Inter alta navium, 

Amice, propugnacula. {Epod. 1.) 

5. Three Asclepiadics (§ 316, III.) and one Glyconic (§ 316, 
IV.); as, 

Scriberis Vario fortis, et hostium 

Victor, Mdbonil carminls aliti, 

Quam rem ctimque ferox navibus aut equis 

Miles, te duce, gesserit. {Lib. 1, 6.) 



PROSODY. — versification; horatian metres. 295 

6. Two Asclepiadics (§ :11G, III.), one Pherecratic (§316, 
V.)^ nnd one Glyconic (§:3!6, TV.); a^ 

Dianam, tenerai, dicite virirines : 
Intonsuin, pueri, diclte Cynthiuiii, 
Latdnamque supremo 

Dilcctain penitus Jovi. (Lib. 1, 21.) 

7. The Asclepiadic (§ 316, III.) alone ; as, 

Maecenas atavis editS regibus. (Lib. 1, 1.) 

8. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one dactylic 
tetrameter a posteriore (§312, V.) ; as, 

Laudabunt alil claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenen, 

Aut Ephesum, bimarlsve Corlnthi.... (Lib. 1, 7.) 

9. The choriambic pentameter (§ 316, I.) alone ; as, 

Tu ne qusesierls, scire nefas, quern miliT, quern tibi..., (Lib. 1, 11.) 

10. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one iambic 
dimeter (§314, VI.); as, 

Nox erat, et ccelo falgebat luna sereno 

Inter minora sidera. (Epod. 15.) 

11. The iambic trimeter (§ 314, I.) alone; as. 

Jam, jam efFicacI do manus scientigB. (Epod. 17.) 

12. One choriambic dimeter (§316, VI.) and one choriambic 
tetrameter (§316, II.) with a variation; as, 

Lydia, die, per omnes 

Te Deos oro, Sybarin cur properas Smando.... (Lib. 1, 8.) 

13. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.) and one iambic trim- 
eter (§314, I.)_; as. 

Altera jam terittir bellls clvllibus ^tas ; 

Sals et Ipsa Roma viribus ruit. (Epod. 16.) 

14. One dactylic hexameter (§310, I.) and one dactylic 
trimeter catalectic (§312, VII.) ; as, 

DifFugere nives : redeunt jam gramina campis, 

Arboribusque comae. (Lib. 4. 7.) 

15. One iambic trimeter (§314, I.), one dactylic trimeter 
catalectic (§312, VII.), and one iambic dimeter (§314, VI.) ; 
as, 

Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, juvat 
Scrlbere versTculos, 

Amore perculsum gravi. (Epod. 11.) 

Note. The second and third lines are often written as one verse. 
See § 318, I. 

16. One dactylic hexameter (§ 310, I.), one iambic dimeter 
(§ 314, VI.), and one dactylic trimeter catalectic (§ 312, VII.) ; 

as, 

Horrida tampestas coelum contraxTt ; et imbres 
Nivesque deducunt Jovem : 

Nunc mare, nunc siluae.... (Epod. 13.) 



296 PROSODY. — versification; horatian metres. 

Note. The second and third lines of this stanza, also, are often written 
as one verse. See § 318, II. 

17. One Archilochian heptameter (§ 318^ IV.) and one 
iambic trimeter catalectic (§ 314, V.) ; as, 

Solvitur acris hiems grata vice veris et Favoni, 

Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas. (Lib. 1, 4.) 

18. One iambic dimeter acephalous (§314, VIII.) and one 
iambic trimeter catalectic (§ 314, V.) ; as, 

Non ebur neque aureum 
Mea renidet In domo lacunar. (Lib. 2, 18.) 

19. The Ionic a minore (§317, II.) alone; as, 
Miserarum est neque amori dare ludum, neque dulci.... (Lib. 3, 12.) 



^321. A metrical key to the odes of HORACE, 

Containing, in alphabetic order, the first words of each, with a 
reference to the numbers in the preceding Synopsis, where the 
metre is explained. 



Mil, vetusto No. 1 

iEquam memento. 1 

Albi, ne doleas 5 

Altera jam teritur 13 

Angustam, amici 1 

At, O deorum 4 

Audivere, Lyce « 6 

Bacchum in remotis 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Coelo suplnas 1 

Coelo tonantem 1 

Cum tu, Lydia 3 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende ccslo 1 

Dianam, tenerse 6 

DifFugere nives 14 

Dive, quem proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram 3 

Eheu ! fugaces 1 

Est mihi nonum 2 

Et thure et fidlbus 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Faune, nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 

Herculis ritu 2 

Horrida tempestas 16 

Ibis Liburnis 4 



Icci, beatis No. 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrse 2 

Inclusam Danaen , . 5 

Intactis opulentior . . , 3 

Integer vitae 2 

Intermissa, Venus, diu 3 

Jam jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terris 2 

Jam veris comites 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabunt alii ,...,... 8 

Lupis et agnis 4 

Lydia, die, per omnes 12 

Mscenas atavis 7 

Mala soluta 4 

Martiis cselebs 2 

Mater saeva Cupidmum 3 

Mercuri, facunde 2 

Mercuri, nam te 2 

Miserarum est 19 

Mollis inertia 10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum 1 

Ne forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillaB 2 

Nolis longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION ; HORATIAN METRES. 297 



Non ebur neque aureum . . . No. 18 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides, quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nullam, Vare, sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

O crudelis adhuc 9 

O diva, gratum 1 

O fons JBandusiaB G 

O matre pulchrcL 1 

O nata niecum * 1 

O navis, referent 6 

O saepe inecum 1 

O Venus, reglna 2 

Odi profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parcus Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 

Percicos odi, puer 2 

Petti, nihil me ...,*....... 15 

Phoebe, silvarumque 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poscimur : siquid 2 

Quae cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 



Quando repostum No. 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho 3 

Quern tu, Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles, Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desiderio 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me, Bacche 3 

Quo, quo, scelesti ruitis 4 

Rectius vives 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septimi, Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrae 8 

Tu ne qusesieris 9 

Tjrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Iby ei 3 

Velox amoenum 1 

Vides, ut alt^ 1 

Vile potabis 2 

Vitas hinnuleo 6 

Vixi puellis ...«...«.•. 1 



298 APPENDIX. GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 



APPENDIX. 



GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. 

<§> 322. Certain deviations from the regular form and 
construction of words, are called grammatical j^gures. These 
may relate either to Orthography and Etymology, or to Syntax. 

I. FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ETYMOLOGY. 

These are distinguished by the general name of meiaplasm. 

1. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or syllable to a word ; as, gna- 
tuSy for naius ; tetuli, for tuli. Yet these were anciently the customary 
forms, from which those now in use were formed by aphseresis. 

2. AphcBresis is the taking of a letter or syllable from the beginning of 
a word; as, 'st, for est; rhahonem, for arrhahonem. 

3. Epenthesis is the insertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a 
word ; as, alituum, for allium. 

4. Syncope is the omission of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; 
as, deum, for deorum ; meum factum^ for meorum factorum ; scecla, for 
scecula ; Jlestl, for Jlevisii; repostus, for repositus ; aspris yfoi asperis. 

5. Crasis is the contraction of two vowels into one ; as, cogOy for coago ; 
nily for nihil. 

6. Paragoge is the addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
as, med, for me ; claudicr, for claudi. 

7. Apocope is the omission of the final letter or syllable of a word ; as, 
men, for mene ; Antoni, for Antonii. 

8. Antithesis is the substitution of one letter for another ; as, olli, for 
illi ; optum,us, for optimus ; afficio, for adjicio. is often thus used for w, 
especially after v; as, voltus, for vultus ; servom, for servum. So after 
qu ; as, cequom, for cBquum. 

9. Metathesis is the changing of the order of letters in a word ; as, 
pistris, for pristis. 

II. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

<§) 323. The figures of Syntax are ellipsis, pleonasm, 
enalldge, and hyperhdton, 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words in a sen- 
tence ; as, 

Aiunt, sc. homines. Darius Hystaspis, sc.Jilius. Cano, sc= ego. Quid 
multa? sc. dicam. 

Ellipsis includes asyndeton, zeugma, syllepsis, prolepsis, 
and synecdoche. 



APPENDIX. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 299 

(1.) AsyiidUon is the omission of a conjunction ; as, abiitf excessit. 
evdsitj erupit, sc. et. Cic. 

(2.) Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns, or two infinitives, to a verb, 
which is applicable only to one of them ; as, Pacem an bellum gerens 
(Sail.), where g?rens is applicable to helium only. Semperne in sanguine, 
ferro, fugd versahimur 1 (Id.) where the verb does not properly apply to 
ferro. 

Nego is often thus used with two propositions, one of which is affirma- 
tive ; as, Negant CcBsarcm mansurum, postulatdque interposUa esse, for 
dicuntque postuldta.... Cic. 

When an adjective or verb, referring to two or more nouns, agrees with 
one, and is understood with the rest, the construction is also sometimes 
called zeugma; as, Et genus, et virtus, nisi cum re, vilior alga, est. Hor. 
Caper tibi salvus ct hcedi. Virg. Quamvis ille niger, quamvis tu Candida 
esses. Id. 

(3.) Syllepsis is when an adjective or verb, belonging to two or more 
nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees with one rather 
than another ; as, Attoniti novitdte pavent Baucis, timidusque Philemon. 
Ovid. Procumbit uterque pronus humi, i. e. Deucalion et Pyrrha. Id. — 
Sustulimus rtianus et ego et Balbus. Cic. So, Ipse cum fratre adesse jussi 
sumus. Id. — Projectisque amiculo et Uteris. Curt. See §§205, Rem. 2, 
and 209, Rem. 12, (3,) and (7.) 

Zeugma, in the latter sense above mentioned, is by some included under 
syllepsis. 

(4.) Prolepsis is when the parts, differing in number or person from the 
whole, are placed after it, the verb or adjective not being repeated ; as, 
Principes utrinque pugnam ciebant, ab Sabinis Mettius Curtius, ah Romdnis 
Hostus Hostilius. Liv. Boni quoniam convemmus ambo, tu caldmos infldrCf 
ego dicere versus. Virg. 

(5.) Synecdoche is the use of an accusative of the part affected, instead 
of an ablative ; as, Expleri mentem nequit. Virg. See § 234, II. 

2. Pleonasm is using a greater number of words than is ne- 
cessary to express the meaning ; as, 

Sic ore locuta est. Virg. Qui magis ver^ vincere quam diu imperdre 
malit. Liv. JVemo unus. Cic. 

Under pleonasm are included parelcon, polysyndeton, Jiendi- 
ddys, ^lid. periphrasis. 

(1.) Parelcon is the addition of an unnecessary syllable or particle to 
pronouns, verbs, or adverbs ; as, egomet, agedum, fortassean. Such addi- 
tions, however, usually modify the meaning in some degree. 

(2.) Polysyndeton is a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, Una Euriisqne 
JVotusque ruunt cr eh er que procellis Afrlcus. Virg. 

(3.) Hendiddys is the expression of an idea by two nouns connected by 
a conjunction, instead of a noun and a limiting adjective or genitive ; as, 
Fateris libdmus et auro, for aureis pateris. Virg. Libro et silvestri subere 
clausam, for libro suberis. Id. 

(4.) Periphrasis is a circuitous mode of expression ; as, Teneri fcetus 
ovium, i. e. agni. Virg. 

3. Enalldge is a change of words, or a substitution of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice of the same 
word for another. 



300 Ai^PENDlX.— FIGIJRES 0± SYNTAX, 

Enallage includes antimeria^ hetei^dsis, aiitiptosis, synesis^ 
and anacoluthon, 

(1.) Antimeria is the use of one part of speech for another; as. J\''ostrum- 
istud vivere triste, for nostra vita. Pers. Miud eras. Id. Conjugium 
videbit? for conjugem. Virg. Placitam pact nutrltor olivam, for nutrito. Id, 

(2.) Heterosis is the use of one form of a noun, pronoun, verb, &c., for 
another ; as, Ego quoque una yereo, quod mihi est carius, for qui miki sum 
carior. Ter. Romanus prcelio victor, for Romdni mctores. Liv. Many 
words are used by the poets in the plural instead of the singular ', as, colla, 
cor da j or a, &c. See § 98. Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, for sus- 
tulisset. Hor. 

(3.) Antiptosis is the use of one case for another ; as, Ciii nunc cogno- 
men lulo;, for lulus. Virg. Uxor inmcti Jovis esse nescis, for te esse uxo- 
rem. Hor. 

(4.) Synesisy or synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a 
word, rather than to its gender or number ; as, Snbeunt Teg(Ba juventus 
auxilio tardi. Stat. Concur sus populi mirantium quid rei est. Liv. Pars 
in cruceni acti. Sail. Ubi illic est scelus, qui me yerdldit 7 Ter. Id mea 
minime refert, qui sum natu maximus. Id. 

(5.) Jlnacoluthon is when the latter part of a sentence does not agree 
in construction with the former ; as, Nam nos omnes, quibus est alicunde 
aliquis objectus labos, omne quod est interea tempus, priusquam, id rescitu^n 
est, lucro est. Ter. In this example, the writer began as if he intended to 
say lucro kabemus, and ended as if he had said nobis omnibus. 

4. Hyperhdton is a transgression of the usual order of words 
or clauses. 

Hyperbaton includes anastrophe, hysteron proteron, Jiypal- 
Idge, synchysis, tmesis , 3,nd parenthesis, 

(1.) Jlnastrophe is an inversion of the order of two words; as, Trans- 
tra per et remos, for per transtra. Virg. Collo dare brachia circum, for cir- 
cumddre. Id. JYox erit una super, for superPrit. Ovid. Et facit are, for 
arefdcit. Lucr. 

(2.) Hysteron proteron is reversing the natural order of the sense ; as, 
Moridmur, et in media arma rudmus. Virg. Valet atque vivit. Ter. 

(3.) Hypalldge is an interchange of constructions ; as. In novafert ani- 
mus mutdtas dicer e for mas corpora, for corpora mutdta in novas for mas. 
Ovid. Dare classibus Austros, for dare classes Austris. Virg. 

(4.) Synchysis, is a confused position of words ; as, Saxa vacant Itdli, 
inediis qua in fluctibus, aras, for quce saxa in mediis fiuctibus, Itdli vocant 
aras. Virg. 

(5.) Tmesis is the separation of the parts of a compound word ; as, 
Septem subjecta trioni gens, for septentrioni. Virg. Quce me cunque vocant 
terrce. Id. Per mihi, per, inquam, gratumfeceris, Cic. 

(6.) Parenthesis is the insertion of a word or words in a sentence 
which interrupt the natural connection ; as, Tityre dum redeo, (brevis est 
via,) pasce capellas. Virg. 

Remark, To the above may be added archaism and Hel- 
lenism, which belong both to the figures of etymology and to 
those of syntax. 

(1.) Archaism is the use of ancient forms or constructions ; as, aulat^ 



APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 301 

for aulrn ; sendt'i, for scnatus ; fuat, for sit ; prohihesso, for prohibuero ; im- 
petrassere, for impetrnturum esse ; farier, for far i; nenu, for non ; endo, for 

in ; Operarn abutltur, for operd. Ter. Q;u,id tlbl hanc curutio est rem ? 

Plaut. 

(2.) Hellenism is the use of Greek forms or constructions ; as, Helene, 
for Helena; .^ntiphon, for Antipho ; aurds (gen.), for aurcB ; Pallddos^ 
Palldda, for Pallddis, Pallddem ; Trodsin, Troddas, for Troadibus, Trod- 
des ; Abstineto irdrum. Hor. Temjms desistere pugnce. Virg. 

V «^'^4. To the grammatical figures may not improperly be sub- 
joined certain others, which are often referred to in philological works, and 
which are called 



TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A rhetorical figure is a mode of expression different from the direct and 
simple way of expressing the same sense. The turning of a word from 
its original and customary meaning, is called a trope. 

1. A metaplior is the transferring of a word from the object to which it 
properly belongs, and applying it to another, to which that object has some 
analogy \ as, Ridet o^ger, The field smiles. Virg. JEtas aurea. The golden 
age. Ovid. 

Catachrtsis is a bold or harsh metaphor ; as, Vir gregis ipse caper. Virg. 
Eurus per Siculas equitavit undas. Hor. 

2. Metonymy is substituting the name of an object for that of another 
to which it has a certain relation ; as the cause for the effect, the container 
for what is contained, the property for the substance, the sign for the thing 
signified, and their contraries ; the parts of the body for certain affections, 
i&c; as. Amor duri Martis, i. e. belli. Virg. Pallida mors. Hor. Hausit 
pateram, i. e. vinum. Virg. Vina cord7iant, i. e. pateram. Id. JVecte 
ternos colores, i. e. tria fila diversi coloris. Id. Ceda/nt arma togse, i. e. 
bellum pact. Cic. Saecula mitescenty i. e. homines inscecidis. Virg. Vivat 
Pacuvius vet Nestora totum. Juv. 

3. Synecdoche is putting a genus for a species, a whole for a part, a sin- 
gular for a plural, and their contraries ; also the material for the thing 
made of it ; as, Mortdles, for homines. Virg. Fontem ferebaiit. Id. Tec- 
tum, for domus. Id. Armdto milite complent, for armatis militibus. Id. 
Per rum, for gladius. 

4. Irony is the intentional use of words which express a sense contrary 
to that which the writer or speaker means to convey ; as. Salve, bone vii\ 
curdsti probe. Ter. Egregiam verd laudem, et spolia ampla refertis, tuque, 
puerque tuus. Virg. 

5. Hyperbole is the magnifying or diminishing of a thing beyond the 
truth J as. Ipse arduus, altdque pulsat sidcra. Virg. Ocior Euro. Id. 

6. Metalepsis is the including of several tropes in one word ; as, Post 
aliquot aristas. Virg. Here aristas is put for messes, this for estates, and 
this for annos. 

7. Allegory is a consistent series of metaphors, designed to illustrate one 
subject by another; as, Cla,udite jam rivos,pueri : sat prata biberunt. Virg. 
O navis, referent in m,are 1e novifluctus. Hor. 

An obscure allegory or riddle is called an (Enigma. 

8. Antonomasia is using a proper noun for a common one, and the con- 
trary ; as, Irus et est subito, qui modo Croesus erat, for pauper and dives 
Ovid. So, by periphrasis, potor Rhoddni, for G alius. Hor. 

Q6 



302 APPENDIX.- — -TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

9. Litotes is a mode of expressing something by denying the contrary ; 
as, vV(9/i laudOf I blame. Ter. JS^on innoxia verba. Virg. 

10. Mntiphrdsis is using a word in a sense opposite to its proper meaning; 
as, .^uri sacra /ame5. Virg. 

11. Euphemism is the use of softened language to express what is offen- 
sive or distressing ; as, -Si quid accidisset Ccesdri^ i. e. si mortuvs esset. Veil. 

12. Antanacldsis is the use of the same word in different senses ; as, 
Quis neget ^nzce. natum de stirpe Neronem ? Sustulit Mc matrem, sustulit 
ille patrem. Epigr. Amari jucundum est, si curetur ne quid insit amari. Cic. 

13. Anaphora^ or epanaphora, is the repetition of a word at the begin- 
ning of successive clauses ; as, Nihilzie te nocturnum prcesidium palatii, 
nihil urbis vigili^e^ nihil tim,or populi, &c. Cic. Te, dulcis conjux, te, solo 
in litore secum,^ te, veniente die, te, decedente, canebat. Virg. 

14. Epistrophe is the repetition of a word at the end of successive 
clauses ; as, Pwnos populus Romdnus justitid vicit, armis vicit, liberalitdte 
vicit. Cic. 

15. Symploce is the repetition of a word at the beginning, and of an- 
other at the end, of successive clauses ; as, Quis legem tuJit 7 Rullus : 
Quis majorem populi partem suffraglis privdvit ? Rullus : Quis comitiis 
pTiBfuit 1 Idem Rullus. Cic. 

16. Epanalepsis is a repetition of the same word or sentence after a 
parenthesis. Virg. Geor. II. 4 — 7. 

17. Anadiplosis is the use of the same word at the end of one clause, 
and the beginning of another ; as. Hie tamen vivit : Vivit? imo vera, 
etiam in sendtum venit. Cic. This is sometimes called epanastrophe . 

18. Epanadiplosis is the use of the same word both at the beginning 
and end of a sentence ; as, Crescit amor nummi, quantum ipsa pecunia 
crescit. Juv. 

19. Epanddos is the i-epetition of the same words in an inverted order ', 
as, Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus ille 7 Improbus ille puer, cru- 
delis tu quoque, mater. Virg. 

20. Epizeuxis is a repetition of the same w^ord for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, Excitate, excitate eum ah inferis. Cic. Ah Cory don, Cory don, qvxB te 
dementia cepit ? Virg. Iblmus, ibimus. Hor. 

21. Climax is when each successive clause of a sentence begins with 
the conelusion of the preceding, the sense being thus gradually amplified; 
as, Quce reliqua sjyes manet lihertdtis, si ilUs et quod libet, licet : et quod licet, 
possunt ; et quod possunt. audent ; et quod audent, vobis molestum non est ? 
Cic. 

22. Incrementum is an amplification without a strict climax ; as, Facinus 
est, vinciri civem Romdnum ; scelus, verberdri ; prope jntrricidiiim, necdri , 
quid dicam in crucem tolli ? Cic. When the sense is gradually heighten- 
ed, it is called anabasis, and when it falls or decreases, catabdsis. 

23. Polyptoton is a repetition of the same word in different cases, gen- 
ders, numbers, &c. ; as, Jam clypeus clypeis, umbdne repellUur umbo ; ense 
minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis. Stat. 

24. Paregmenon is the use of several words of the same origin, in one 
sentence ; as, Abesse non potest, quin ejusdem hominis sit, qui improbos 
probet, probos improbare. Cic. 

25. Paronomasia is the use of words which resemble each other in 
sound ; as, Amor et melle ct felle est foecundissiTnus. Plant. Cirem bond- 
rum artiuni, bondrum partium. Cic. Amantes sunt amentes. Ter. This 
figure is sometimes called agnominatio. 



APPENDIX. TROPES AND FIGURES OF RHETORIC. aQ3 

26. HomcBopropheron, or alliteration^ is when several words beginning 
with the same letter occur in a sentence ; as, Tite^ tide Tati, tibi tanta^ 
tyrannc, taiisti. Enn. Kcu patrioi validas in viscera vertite vires. Virg. 

27. Antithesis is the placing of different or opposite words or sentiments 
in contrast; as, Hujiis orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium 
invcnlre. Cic. Caesar beneficiis «c munificentia w«^'71m5 /irtie6rt<?^r ; integ- 
ritate vitae Cato. Sail. 

28. Oxymoron unites words of contrary significations, thus producing 
a seeming contradiction ; as, Concordia discors. Hor. Cum tacent, cla- 
mant. Cic. 

29. St/nonymia is the use of different words or expressions having the 
same import; us, JVon feram, non patiar,non sinam. Cic. Promitto. rO' 
cipio, spondeo. Id. 

30. Parabola^ or simile, is the comparison of one thing with another ; 
as, Repentc, te, tanquam serpens e latihulis, oculis eminentibus, infldto collo^ 
tumidis cervicibns, intulisti. Cic. 

31. Erotesis is an earnest question, and oflen implies a strong affirma- 
tion of the contrary; as, Creditis avectos hastes? Virg. Heu/ quce me 
cequora possunt accipcre 7 Id. 

32. Epanortliosls is the recalling of a word, in order to place a stronger 
or more significant one in its stead; dis, F ilium ujiicuvi adolescentidum 
habeo : ah / quid dixi ? me habere ? hno habui. Ter. 

33. AposiopEsLS is leaving a sentence unfinished in consequence of some 
emotion of the mind; as, Qiios ego — sed j^i'^^stat motos componere jluctus, 
Virg. 

34. Prosopopoeia, OT personijicatioji, Ye]ivesenis inanimate things as act- 
ing or speaking, and persons dead or absent as alive and present ; as, Quce 
(patria) tecum Catilina sic agit. Cic. Virtus surtiit aiit ponit secures. Hor. 

35. Apostrophe \s a turning off from the regular course of the subject, to 
address some person or thing ; as, Vi potitur : quid non mortalia pector^ 
cogis, auri sacra fames ! Virg. 

<§) o2o. To the figures of rhetoric may be subjoined the following 
terms, used to designate defects or blemishes in style : — 

1. Barbarism is either the use of a foreign word, or a violation of the 
rules of orthography , etymology, or prosody ; as, rigorosus, for rigidus or 
severus ; dornminus, for dominus ; davi, for dedi ; alterius, for alterius. 

2. Solecism is a violation of the rules of syntax ; as, Venus pulcher ; vos 
invidemus. 

3. JYeoterism is the use of words or phrases introduced by authors living 
subsequently to the best ages of Latinity; as, murdrum, a murder; con- 
stabularius, a constable. 

4. Tautology is a repetition of the same meaning in different words ; as, 
Ja7n vos aciem, ei pra^lia, et hostem. poscitis, Sil. 

5. Amphibolia is the use of equivocal words or constructions ; as, Gallus, 
a Gaul, or a cock. Aio te, ^acida, Romanes vincere posse. Quinct. 

6. Idiotism is a construction peculiar to one or more languages : thus, 
the ablative afler comparatives is a Latinism. When a peculiarity of one 
language is imitated in another, this is also called idiotism. Thus, MitU 
viihi verbum, instead of Fac me certiorem, is an Anglicism, 



304 APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING ; TIME. 

ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING. 

I. OF TIME. 

<§> 326. 1. The calendar of the Romans agreed with our 
own in the number of months, and of the days in each ; but. 
instead of reckoning in an uninterrupted series from the first 
to the last day of a month, they had three points from which 
their days were counted — the calends, the nones, and the ides. 
The calends were always the first day of the month. The 
nones were the fifth, and the ides the thirteenth ; except in 
March, May, July, and October, in which the nones occurred 
on the seventh day, and the ides on the fifteenth. 

2. They always counted forw^ards, from the day whose date 
w^as to be determined to the next calends, nones, or ides, and 
designated the day by its distance from such point. After the 
first day of the month, therefore, they began to reckon so many 
days before the nones ; after the nones, so many days before the 
ides ; after the ides, so many before the calends, of the next 
month. 

Thus, the second of January was denoted by quarto nonas JammriaSy 
or Januarii, sc. die ante ; the third, tertio nonas ; the fourth, p?•^rf^e nonas; 
and the fifth, nonis. The sixth was denoted by octavo idus ; the seventh, 
septimo idus ; and so on to the thirteenth, on which the ides fell. The 
fourteenth was denoted by undevigesimo calendas Februarias, or Febru- 
aril ; and so on to the end of the month. 

3. The day preceding the calends, nones, and ides, was teYm- 
Qdi pridie calendas, &/C., sc. ante: in designating the other days, 
both the day of the calends, ^c, and that whose date was to 
be determined, were reckoned ; hence the second day before the 
calends, &c., was called tertio, the third quarto, 6lc, 

4. To reduce the Roman calendar to our own, therefore, it 
is necessary to take one from the number denoting the day, and 
to subtract the remainder from the number of the day on which 
the nones or ides fell. 

Thus, to determine the day equivalent to IV. nonas Januarias, we take 
1 from 4, and subtract the remainder, 3, from 5, the day on which the nones 
fell: this gives 2, or the second of January, for the day in question. So 
VI. idus £prilis : the ides of April falling upon the 13th, we takq 5 from 
13, which leaves 8 : the expression, therefore, denotes the 8th of April. 

In reckoning the days before the calends, as they are not the 
last day of the current month, but the first of the following, it 
is necessary to add one to the number of days in the month. 

Thusj XV. col. quintiles is (30+1) 31—14=17, or the 17th of June. 



APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING ; TIME. 305 

To reduce our calendar to the Roman, the same method is 
to be t^'i^^p^tI. 

Thus, the 22d of December is (31+1) 32—21=11, i. e. XL cal. Jan. 

5. In Jeap-year, both the 24th and 25th of February were 
denoted by sexto cakndas 3Iartias or Martii. The latter of 
these was called dies hissextus, and the year itself annus bis- 
sextus. 

The day after the calends, &c., was sometimes called postridie calendaSf 
<fcc. 

The names of the months are properly adjectives, though often used • 
as nouns, viensis being understood. Before the times of the emperors, 
July was called Quinillls, and August, Sextilis. The names Julius and 
Jiugustus were given in honor of the Caesars. 

6. The correspondence of our calendar with that of the 
Romans is exhibited in the following 









TABLE. 






Days of 


Mar. 


Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Apr. Jun. 


Febr. 


our months. 


Jul. 


Oct. 


Dec. 


Sept. Nov. 


1 


Calendoe. 


Calendae. 


Calendae. 


Calendae. 


2 


VI. ] 


nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


3 


V. 


u 


III. " 


III. 


III. ^< 


4 


IV. 


ii 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie <* 


5 


III. 


a 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


Nonae. 


G 


Pridie 


a 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


~ 7 


Nonas. 




VII. " 


VII. '' 


VII. *' 


8 


VIII. 


idus. 


VI. 


VI. 


VI. ** 


9 


VII. 


a 


V. " 


V. 


V. 


10 


VI. 


a 


IV. 


IV. " 


IV. « 


11 


V. 


u 


III. 


III. 


IIL << 


12 


TV. 


ti 


Pridie '<■ 


Pridie " 


Pridie ** 


13 


III. 


a 


Idus. 


Idas. 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie 


a 


XIX. cal. 


XVIII. cal. 


XVI. cal. 


15 


Idus. 




XVIII. '^ 


XVII. ^• 


XV. '« 


16 


XVII. 


cal. 


XVII. " 


XVI. " 


XIV. « 


17 


XVI. 


ii 


XVI. " 


XV. " • 


XIII. ^* 


18 


XV. 


a 


XV. '^ 


XIV. " 


XII. " 


19 


XIV. 


a 


XIV. " 


XIII. " 


XI. <' 


20 


XIII. 


a 


XIII. '< 


XII. '^ 


X " 


21 


XII. 


ii 


XII. '^ 


XL 


IX. " 


22 


XI. 


a 


XI. 


X. " 


VIII. <* 


23 


X. 


ii 


X. 


IX. 


VII. <* 


24 


IX. 


it 


IX. 


VIII. " 


VI. 


25 


VIII. 


it 


VIII. ^^ 


VII. " 


V. '< 


26 


VII. 


a 


VII. ^< 


VI. " 


IV. '< 


27 


VI. 


a 


VI. 


V. " 


III. " 


28 


V. 


ii 


V. '• 


IV. 


Pridie "Mar 


29 


IV. 


ii 


IV. " 


III. 




30 


III. 


a 


III. '' 


Pridie " 




31 


Pridie 

26 


a 


Pridie « 







^06 APPENDIX. ROMAN MODE OF RECKONING : MONET. 

7. The Latins not only said tertio, pridie, &lc., calendas, 
&c., but also ante diem tertiuni, &c.., cahndas, Slc. ; arc! the 
latter form in Cicero and Livj is far more common than the 
former, and is usually written thus, a. d. III. caL, &lc. 

The expression a?ite diem was used as an indeclinable noun, 
and is joined with in and ex ; as. 

Consul Latinas ferias in ante diem tertium idus Sextilis edixit, The con- 
sul appointed the Latin festival for the third day before the ides of August. 
Liv. SuppUcatio indicia est ex ante diem quintum idus Octobres. Id. So. 
Ad pridie nonas Maias. Cic. 

II. OF MONEY. 

^ 327« 1. The Romans reckoned their copper money by 
asses, their silver money by sestertii, and their gold money by 
Attic talents, 

2. The as was originally a pound of copper, but its weight 
was gradually diminished in succeeding ages, until, in the later 
days of the republic, it amounted to only ^V ^^ ^ pound. It is 
divided into twelve parts, called uncice. 

The names of the several parts are, uncia, yV ; sextans^ -^^ ; quad- 
rans,^; triens , ^-:y ) quincunx, -f-^ ', semis, ot semis sis, ■^■2', septunx^-^-^'y 
heSs or hessis, -^^ ', dodrans, y^^" ■> dextans, -^J- ; deunx, -^^. 

3. The denarius was a silver coin, originally equal in value 
to ten asses, whence its name ; but, after the weight of the as 
was reduced, the denarius was equal to sixteen asses. Its value 
is usually estimated at about 14-i- cents of our money. 

The sestertius, or sesterce, was one fourth of the denarius, 
or two asses and a half [semistertius) , and was hence denoted 
by IIS, or HS. When the denarius was worth 16 asses, the 
sestertius was worth 4. The sestertius was called emphatically 
nummus, as in it all large sums were reckoned after the coining 
of silver money. s 

Half a denarius was a quinarius ; one tenth of a denarius, a libella. 

The aureus (a gold coin), in the time of the emperors, was 
equal to 25 denarii, or 100 sesterces. 

The talent is variously estimated, from $860 to $1020, 

4. In reckoning money, the Romans called any sum under 
2000 sesterces so many sestei^tii ; as, decern seste^^tii, ten ses- 
terces ; centum sestertii, a hundred sesterces. 

5. Sums from 2000 sesterces (inclusive) to 1,000,000, they 
denoted either by mille, millia, with sestertium (gen. plur.), or by 
the plural of the neuter noun sestertium, v/hich itself signified 
a thousand sesterces. Thus they said quadraginta millia 



APPENDIX. ABBREVIATIONS. 



307 



sesteriium, or quadraginta sestcrtia, to denote 40,000 sesterces. 

Witli the (^!;enitive sei:t('rtmni. milua vvas sometimes omitted; as, 
■sestcrtium ceiilum, sc. miUia, 100,000 sesterces. 

6. To denote a million, or more, they used a combination ; 
thus, decies centena inillia sestcrtium, 1,000,000 sesterces. The 
words centena millia, however, were generally omitted ; thus, 
decies sestertluni, and sometimes merely decies. See § 118, 5. 
So, centies, 10 millions; millieSy 100 millions. 

Some suppose that sestertium, when thus joined with the numeral ad- 
verbs, is always the neuter noun in the nominative or accusative singular. 
Tlie genitive and ablative of that noun are thus used ; as, Decies sestertii 
dote, With a dowry of 1,000,000 sesterces. Tac. Quiiiquagies sestertio, 
5,000,000 sesterces. Id. But this usage does not occur in Cicero. 

The different combinations were thus distinguished : — HS. X. denoted 
decern, sestertii; HS. X, decern sestertla ; HS. X, decies sestertlu'in. But 
this distinction v/as not always observed. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

<§) 328. The following are the most c6mmon abbreviations 
of Latin words : — 



A., Aalus. 

C, Caius, 
Cn., Cneus. 
D., Decimus. 
L., Lucius. 
M., Marcus. 

A. d., ante diem. 

A. U. C, anno urhis 

conduce. 
Cal., or kal., calendcB. 
Cos., Consul. 
Coss., Consules. 
D., Divus. 

D. D., dono dedit. 

D. D. D,, dot, dicat, de- 
dicate or dono dicat, 
dedicat. 

Des., designdtus. 

D. M., diis mamhus. 

Eq. Rom., eques Roma- 
nus. 



M. T. C, Marcus Tul- Q., or Qu., Qnintus. 

lius Cicero. Ser., Servius. 

M'., Manius. S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Mam., Mamercus. Sp., Spurius. 

N., JYumerius. T., Titus. 

P., Publius. Ti., or Tib., Tiberius. 



F., Filius; as, M. F., 

Marcijilius. 
Ictus, jurisconsultus. 
Id., idus. 
Imp., imperdtor. 
3. O. M., Jovij optimo 

maximo. 
N., nepos. 
Non., nonce. 
P. C, patres con- 

scripti. 
Fl., plebis. 
Pop., populus. 
P. R., populus Romd- 



Pont. Max., pontifex 

maximus. 
Pr., prcetor. 
Proc, proconsul. 
Resp., respublica. 
S., saiutem, sacrum, or 

sendtus. 
S. D. P., salutem dicit 

plurimam. 
S. P. Q. R., Sendtus 

populusque Romd- 

mis. 
S. C, sendtus consid- 

turn. 
Tr., tribunus. 



To these may be added terms of reference ; as, c, caput, chapter; cf., 
confer, compare ; I. c, loco citdto ; I. I., loco laudato, in the place quoted; 
v.. versus, verse. 



308 APPENDIX.— Bli^FERENT AGES OF ROMAN LiTEHATURE. 



DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

^ 329. 1. Of the Roman literature for the first five cen- 
turies after the foundation of the city, hardly a vestige remains. 
The writers of the succeeding centuries have been arranged 
in four ages, in reference to the purity of the language in the 
period in vrhich they flourished. These are called the golden, 
silver, brazen, and iron ages. 

2. The golden age is generally reckoned from about the 
year 514 of the city to the death of Augustus, A. D. 14, a 
period of a little more than 250 years. The writers of the early 
part of this age are valued rather on account of their antiquity^ 
than as models of style. It was not till the age of Cicero, that 
Roman literature reached its highest elevation. The era 
comprehending the generation immediately preceding, and that 
immediately succeeding, that of Cicero, as well as his own, is 
the period in which the most distinguished writers of Rome 
flourished ; and their works, are the standard of purity in the 
Latin language. 

3. The silver age extended from the death of Augustus to the 
death of Trajan, A, D. 118, a period of 104 years. The wri- 
ters of this age were inferior to those who had preceded them ; 
yet several of them are worthy of commendation. 

4. The brazen age comprised the interval from the death of 
Trajan to the time when Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D. 
410. From the latter epoch commenced the iron age, during 
which the Latin language w^as much adulterated with foreign 
words, and its style and spirit essentially injured. 

LATIN WRITERS IN THE DIFFERENT AGES. 

(From the Lexicon of Facciolatus.) 

WRITERS OF THE GOLDEN AGE. \ 

Livius Andronlcus, C. Decius Laberius. Atta. 

Lsevius. M. Verrius Flaccus. Cassius Hemlna. 

C. Nsevius. Varro Attaclnus, Fenestella. 

Statius Caecilius. Titinius. Claud. Quadrigari 

Q. Ennius. L. Pomponius. us. 

M. Pacuvius. A. Serenus. Coelius. or Caelius. 

L. Accius. C. Sempronius Asellio. Fabius Pictor. 

C. Lucilius. C. Sempronius Grac- Cn GeUius. 

Sex. Turpilius. chus. L. Piso. 

L. Afranius. Santra. Valerius Antias. 

L. Cornelius Sisenna. Cn. Matius. Tiro Tullius, and 

P. Nigidius Figulus. Q, Novius. others. 

Of the works of the preceding writers, only a few fragments remain. 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



309 



M. Porcius Cato. 
■ M. Accius Plautus. 
f -^ M. Terent.ius Af'er. 
T. Lucretius Carus. 
■"- C, Valerius Catullus. 

P. Syrus. 
' C. Julius Ca3sar. 
— Cornelius Nepos. 
^ -. M. Tullius Cicero. 



Sex. Aurelius Proper- — P. Ovidius Naso. 
tius. ^ Q. Horatius Flaccus. 

C. Pedo Albinovanus. 
Gratius Faliscus. 
Phaedrus. 
C. Cornificius. 
A. Hirtius, or Oppius. 
P. Cornelius Sever us. 



C. Sallustius Crispus. 
M. Terentius Varro. 
Albius Tibullus. 
P. Virgilius Maro. 
T. Livius. 
M. Manilius. 
M. Vitruvius. 

To these may be added the following names of lawyers, whose 
opinions are found in the digests : — 

Q. Mutius ScoBvola. M. Antistius Labeo. Masurius Sablnus. 

Alfenus Varus. 

Of the writers of the golden age, the most distinguished are 
Terence,, Catullus, Caesar, Nepos, Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, T. 
Livy, and Sallust. 

WRITERS OF THE SILVER AGE. 



A. Cornelius Celsus. 
P. Velleius Paterculus. 
L. Junius Moderatus 
Columella. 
Pomponius Mela. 
A. Persius Flaccus. 
Q. Asconius Pedianus. • 
M. Annseus Seneca. 
L. Annseus Seneca. 



M. Annaeus Lucanus. 
T. Petronius Arbiter. 
C. Plinius Secundus. 
C. Silius Italicus. 
C. Valerius Flaccus. 
C. Julius Solinus. 
'D. Junius Juvenalis. 
P. Papinius Statins. 
M. Valerius Martialis. 



-^ M. Fabius Quintilia- 
nus. 
Sex. Julius Frontinus. 
.r* C. Cornelius Tacitus. 
C. Plinius Cascilius Se- 
cundus. 
L. Annaeus Florus. 
C. Suetonius Tranquil- 
lus. 



The age to which the following writers should be assigned is some- 
what uncertain: — 

Q. Curtius Rufus. Scribonius Largus. L. Fenestella. 

Valer. Probus. Sulpitia. Atteius Capito. 

Of the writers of the silver age, the most distinguished are Celsus, 
Velleius, Columella, the Senecas, the Plinies, Juvenal, Quintilian, 
Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius. 

WRITERS OF THE BRAZEN AGE. 



A. Gellius. 

L. Apuleius. 

Q. Septimius TertuUianus. 

Q. Serenus Sammonicus. 

Censorlnus. 

Thascius Csecilius Cyprianus. 
T. Julius Calpurnius. 
M. Aurelius Nemesianus. 

^lius Spartianus. 

Julius Capitolinus. 

^lius Lampridius. 

Vulcatius Gallicanus. 

Trebellius Pollio. 

Flavius Vopiscus. 

Ccelius Aurelianus. 

Flavius Eutropius. 

Rhemnius Fannius, 

Arnobius Afer. 



L, Ccelius Lactantius. 
^lius Donatus. 

C. Vettus Juvencus. 
Julius Firmlcus. 

Fab. Marius Victorlnus. 

Sex. Rufus, or Rufus Festus. 

Ammianus Marcelllnus. 

Vegetius Renatus. 
Aurel. Theodorus Macrobius. 
Q. Aurelius Symmachus. 

D. Magnus Ausonius. 
Paulinus Nolanus. 

Sex. Aurelius Victor. 
Aurel. Prudentius Clemens. 
CI. Ciaudianus. 

Marcellus Empiricus. 

Falconia Proba. 



310 



APPENDIX. WRITERS IN DIFFERENT AGES. 



Of an Age not entirely certain, 

Valerius Maximus. Minutius Felix. Fl. Avienus, or Avia- 

Justlnus. SosipSter Charisius. nus. 

Terentianus Maurus. 

The opinions of the following lawyers are found in the digests : — 
Licinius Proculus. Salvias Julianus. Sex. Pomponius. 

Neratius Priscus. Caius. Venuleius Saturninus. 

P. Juventius Celsus. Callistratus. ^lius Marcianus. 

Priscus Jabolenus. jEmilius Papinianus. iElius Gallus, and 

Domitius Ulpianus. Julius Paulus. others. 

HerenniusModestlnus. 

Of the writers of the brazen age, Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lac- 
tantius, and Claudian, are most distinguished. 

The age to which the following writers belong is uncertain. The 
style of some of them v/ould entitle them to be ranked with the writ- 
ers of the preceding ages, while that of others would place them even 
below those of tlie iron age. 



Palladius Rutilius Tau- 
rus ^milianus. 

-^milius Macer. 

Messala Corvlnus. 

Vibius Sequester. 

Julius Obsequens. 

L. Ampelius. 

Apicius Coelius. 

Sex. Pompeius Festus. 

Probus (auctor Nota- 
rum.) 

Fulgentius Planciades. 

Hyglnus. 

C. Caesar Germanicus. 

P. Victor. 

P. Vegetius. 

Auctores Priapeioruni. 



Catalecta Virgilii et 
Ovidii. 

Auctor orationis Sal- 
lustii in Cic. et Ci- 
ceronis in Sail. ; 
item illius Jlnte- 
quam, iret in exsi- 
lium. 

Auctor EpistolsB ad Oc- 
tavium. 

Auctor Panegyrici ad 
Pisonem. 

Declamationes quae 
tribuuntur Quintili- 
ano, Porcio Latro- 
ni, Calpurnio Flac- 
co. 



Interpres Daretis Phry- 
gii, et Dictyos Cre- 
tensis. 

Scholiastae Ve teres. 

Grammatici Antlqui. 

Rhetores Antiqui. 

Medici Antlqui. 

Catalecta Petroniana. 

Pervigilium Veneris. 

Poematia et Epigram- 
mata Vetera a Pi- 
th seo collecta. 

Monumentum Ancy- 
ranum. 

Fasti Consulares. 

Inscriptiones Veteres. 



WRITERS OF THE IRON AGE, 



CI. Rutilius Numatia- 

nus. 
Servius Honoratus. 
D. Hieronymus. 
D. Augustinus. 
Sulpicius Severus. 
Paulus Orosius. 
Ccglius Sedulius. 
Codex Theodosianus. 
Martianus Capella. 
Claudianus Mamertus. 
Sidonius Apollinaris. 



Latlnus Pacatus. 
Claudius Mamertlnus, 

et alii, quorum sunt 

Panegyrici veteres. 
Alcimus A Vitus. 
Manl. Severinus Boe- 

thius. 
Priscianus. 
Nonius Marcellus. 
Justiniani Institutiones 

et Codex. 



Arator. 

M. Aurelius Cassido 

rus. 
Fl. Cresconius Corip' 

pus. 
Venantius Fortunatus. 
Isidorus Hispalensis. 
Anonymus Ravennas. 
Aldhelmus or Althel- 

mus. 
Paulus Diaconus 



/ 



INDEX. 



The figures in the following Index designate the sections^ and their divisions : r. stands 
for remark, n. for note, and e. for exception. 



A, sound of, 7 and 8 — ^nouns in, of 3d 
dec, gender of, 66 ; genitive of, 68 — 
increment in, 3d dec, 287,3 5 plural, 
2883 of verbs, 290— final, quantity of, 
294. 

A, ab, obs, how used, 195, r. 2. 

Abbreviations, 328. 

Abdico, construction of, 251, r. 2. 

Ablative, 37— sing., 3d dec, 82 5 of ad- 
jectives, 3d dec, 113 and 11^^-— plur., 
1st dec, 43 j 3d dec, 84; 4th dec, 
89, 5— used adverbially, 192, I., IL— • 
of character, quality, &,c., 211, r, 6 — 
after prepositions, 241— -of situation, 
&c, after sum, 24o, III. — after partici- 
ples denoting origin, 246— of cause, 
&c, 247— of agent, 248— of a noun, 
vvith which, &c, 249 3 in accordance 
with which, 249, II. — of accompani- 
ment, 249, III. — denoting in what re- 
spect, 250— after adjectives of plenty 
or want, 250 — after verbs of abound- 
ing, &c,250 — with facio and sum, 250, 
R. 3 — after v^erbs of depriving, &c, 
251— of price, 252— of time, 253— of 
place, where, 254 ; whence, 255 — after 
comparatives, 256 — after alius, 256, 
R. 14 — of degree of difference, 256, 
R. 16 — absolute, 257 3 do., without a 
participle, 257, R. 7; do., with a 
clause instead of a noun, 257, r. 8. 

Abounding and wanting, verbs of, with 
abl., 250— with gen., 220, (3.) 

Abstract nouns, 26 — formation of, 101 
and 102. 

Abus, dat. and abl. plur. in, 43. 

^C52withsubj., 263, 2. 

Acatalectic verse, 304. 

Accents, 5. 

Accentuation, 14. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 249, III. 

Accordance, abl. of, 249, II. 



Accusative, 37 — sing., 3d dec, 79 j of 
Greek nouns, 80 — plur., 3d dec, 85 — 
neuter, used adverbially, 192, II., 4, 
and 205, r. 10— after verbs, 229-234 
— omitted, 229, R.4 — infinitive instead 
of, 229, R. 5 — of a person, after mise- • 
ret, &c., 229, r. 63 after juvat, &c,. ; 
229, R. 7— after neuter verbs, 232— 
after compound verbs, 233^ — after ver- 
bal nouns, 233, n. — ^of part affected, 
234, II. — after prepositions, 235 — of 
time and space, 236 — of place, 237 — 
after adverbs and interjections, 238 — 
as subject, 239. 

Accusatives, two, after what verbs, 230 
— latter of, after passive voice, 234. 

Accusing alid acquitting, verbs of, with 
gen., 217. 

Acephalous verse, 304. 

Active voice, 141. 

verb, 141— object of, 229— two 

cases after, 229, r. 1— omitted, 229, 
R. 3. 

Adjectives, 104-131 — classes of, 104 — 
declension of, 105— gen. sing, of, 112, 
114 — abl. sing, of, 113, 114 — nom.and 
gen. plur. of, 113, 114 — irregular, 115, 
116— derivation of, 128— verbal, 129 
— participial, 130— adverbial, 130 — 
prepositional, 130 — composition of, 
131_how modified, 201, III., r. 2— 
agreement of, 205> — either modifiers 
or predicates, 205, n. 1 — with two or 
more nouns, 205, r. 2 — with a collec- 
tive noun, 205, r. 3 — sing, with a plur. 
noun, 205, r. 4^— dat. of, for ace, 205, 
R. 6 — without a noun, 205, r. 7 — with 
infinitives, clauses, &c, 205, r. 8 — 
with gen. instead of their own case, 
205, R. 9, and 212, r. 3— used parti- 
tively, gender of, 205, r. 12 — instead 
of adverbs, 205, r. 15 — primus, medi- 



312 



INDEX. 



uSj &c., signification of, 205, r. 17-— 
agreeing" with relative instead of ante- 
cedent, 206, (7,)— gen. after, 213— 
gen. or abl. after, 213, R. 5 — dat. after, 
222 — gen. or dat. after, 213, r. 6, and 
222, R. 2 — of plenty or want, with abl., 
250— followed by iniin., 270, r. 1— 
place of, 279, 7. 

Adjective pronouns, 134-139— classes 
of, 134— agreement of, 205. 

Admonishing, verbs of, with gen., 218. 

Adorning and arraying, verbs of, with 
abl., 249. 

Adonic verse, 312. 

Adverbial adjectives, 130. 

Adverbs, 190-194 numeral, 119 of 

place, mutual relation of, 191, r. 1 — 
derivation of, 192 — composition of, 
193 — comparison of, 194-— how modi- 
fied, 201, III, R. 4 — used as adjectives, 
205, R. 11 — with gen., 212, r. 4— with 
dat., 228, (1,)— with ace, 238— use of, 
277 — two negatives, force of, 277, r. 
3-5 — equivalent to phrases, 277, r. 
8 — of likeness, as connectives, 278, r. 
l__p]ace of, 279, 15. 

Enigma, 324, 7. 

Affection of the mind, verbs denoting, 
with gen., 220. 

Agent, dative of, 225, II., III.— when 
w^anting, 225, III., r. 1— abl. of, 248. 

Ages of Roman literature, 329. 

Agnominatio, 324, 25. 

Agreement^ defined, 203, 6 — of adjec- 
tives, adjective pronouns, and partici- 
ples, 205— of relatives, 206. 

Al, genitive in, 43 — quantity of the a in, 

/COO, E. o. 

Aio, 183, 4— -its place in a sentence, 

279,6. 
Al, nouns in, abl. of, 82— increment of, 

287, E. (A.) 1. 
Alcaic — greater, 318, III.— lesser, 318, 

Alcmanian dactyHc tetrameter, 312. 

Alls, ai'is, atilis, adj. in, 128, 2. 

Aliquis, declined, 138>— how used, 207, 
r. 30. 

Alius, how declined, 107 — how used, 207, 
R. 32— with abl., 256, r. 14. 

Allegory, 324, 7. 

Alliteration, 324, 26. 

Alter, how^ declined, 107 — how used, 207,. 
R. 32, and 212, r. 2, n. 1. 

Ambo, how declined, 118. 

Amphibolia, 325, 5. 

Amplificatives, nouns, 100, 4 — adjec- 
tives, 104, and 128, 4. 

Anabasis, 324. 22. 

Anacoluthon, 323, 3, (5.) 

Anacreontic iambic dimeter, 314, IX. 



Anadiplosis, 324, 17. 

Analysis of sentences, 281. 

Anapaestic, met re, 313, 303— monometer, 
313— dimeter, 313. 

Anaphora, 324, 13. 

Anastrophe, 323,4, (1.) 

Ante die?fi caL, &c., 326, 7. 

Antanaclasis, 324, 12. 

Antecedent, 136— understood, 206, (3^) 
(4,) — its place supplied by a demon- 
strative, 206, (3,) — in the case of the 
relative, 206, (6.) 

Antepenult, 13 — quantity of, 292. 

Antequam, by what mood followed, 
263, 3. 

Antimeria, 323, 3, (1.) 

Antiphrasis, 324, 10. 

Antiptosis, 323, 3, (3.) 

Antithesis, 322, and 324, 27. 

Antonomasia, 324, 8. 

Apage, 183, 10. 

Aphseresis, 322. 

Apocope, 322. 

Apodosis, 261. 

Aposiopesis, 324, 33. 

Apostrophe, 324, 35. 

Appendix, 322-329. 

Apposition, 204-— to two or more nouns, 
204, R. 6- — to nouns connected by cum, 
204, R. 5 — to proper names of differ- 
ent genders, 204, r. 5 — gen. instead 
of, 204, R. 6— abl. with gen., 204, r. 
7— of parts with a whole, 204, r. 10, 
and 212, r. 2, n. 5 — nouns in, place 
of, 279, 9. 

Aptotes, 94. 

Ar, nouns in, gender of, ^Q, 67 — gen. of, 
70, 71— abl. of, 82— increment of, 287, 
E. (A.) 1. 

Archaism, 323, R. (1.) 

Archilochian, penthemimeris, 312 — -iam- 
bic trimeter, 314, V. — do. dimeter, 
314, VIL— heptameter, 318, IV. 

Avium, nouns in, 100, 8. 

Anus, adj. in, 128, 3. 

Arrangement, of words, 279 — of clauses, 
280. 

Arsis and thesis, 308. 

As, genitives in, 43— nouns in, of 3d dec, 
gender of, 62 3 gen. of, 72 — and anus, 
adj. in, 128, 6— final, quantity of, 300. 

As, Roman, value of, 327 — how divided, 
327. 

Asclepiadic tetrameter, S16, III. 

Asking, demanding, and teaching, verbs 
of, two ace. after, 231. 

Assuesco, with abl., 245, II, — ^with dat., 
245, II., R. 1. 

Asyndeton, 323, 1, (1.) I 

Attraction, 206, (6.) 

Audeo, how conjugated, 142, r. 2. 



INDEX. 



313 



Aiidiens, construction of, 222, R. I. 

Aureus, value of, 327, 3. 

Ausim, 183, R. 1. 

Authority, quantity determined by, 

282, 4. 
v4y and atu, in the 2d and 3d roots of 

verbs, 164. 
Ave, 183, 8. 
Ax, adj. in, 129, 6 — verbals in, with gen., 

213, R. 1. 



B. 

B final, quantity of, 299. 

Barbarism, 325, 1. 

Belli, construction of, 221, R. 3. 

Bills, adjectives in, 129, 3^ — with dative, 

222. 
Bos, dat. and abl. plur. of, 84, and 286, 5. 
Brachycatalectic verse, 304. 
Brazen age, 329, 4. 
Bucolic caesura, 310, 6. 
Bundus, adjectives in, 129, 1 — with ace, 

233, N, 



G. 

C, sound of, 10 — nouns in, gender of, 
66 3 gen. of, 70— -final, quantity of, 299. 

Caesura, 309— different kinds of, 309— 
in hexameter verse, 310, 3-6 — in pen- 
tameter verse, 311, 2 — in iambic verse, 
314, I. and X. — in trochaic verse, 315, 
I. — in choriambic verse, 316, III. 

Caesura! pause, 309, 3. 

Calends, 326. 

Cardinal numbers, 117 and 118. 

Cases of nouns, 36 and 37. 

Catabasis, 324, 22. 

Catachresis, 324, 1. 

Catalectic verse, 304. 

Cause, abl. of, 247— ace. of with prepo- 
sitions, 247, R. 1. 

Ce and cine, enclitic, 134, r. 4. 

Cedo, 183, 11. 

Celo, with two accusatives, 231. 

Ceu, with subjunctive, 263, 2. 

Ch, sound of, 10. 

Character or quality, gen. of, 211, R. 6. 

Choliambus, 314, II. 

Choriambic, metre, 316 and 303 — pen- 
tameter, 316, 1. — tetrameter, 316, II. — 
trimeter. 316, IV.^ — trimeter catalectic, 
316, v.— dimeter, 316, VI. 

Clam, government of, 235, (5.) 

Clause, as a logical subject, 201, IV. 

Clauses, 203— how connected, 203, 4, 
and 278, R. 3— arrangement of, 280- 

Climax, 324,21. 

27 



Ccejyi, 183, 2. 

Collective nouns, 26 — number of their 
verbs, 209, R. 11. 

Common, nouns, 26— gender, 30 — sylla- 
ble, 282, 2. 

Comparative degree, 123 — formation of, 
124. 

Comparatives, declined, 110 — with gen., 
212, R. 2 — denoting one of two, 212, 
R. 2, N. 1 — with abl. 256. 

Comparison, of adjectives, 122-127 — 
terminational, 124 — of adverbs, 191 — 

irregular, 125 defective, 126 by 

magis and vifxxime, 127. 

Composition, of nouns, 103 — of adj., 131 
—of verbs, 188— of adverbs, 193. 

Compound, subject, 201 — predicate, 202, 
II.— sentence, 203— metres, 318. 

Compound words, how divided, 23 — 
quantity of, 285. 

Con, adjectives compounded with, with 
gen., 222— verbs do., with dat., 224. 

Concretes, 101, 2. 

Condemning and convicting, verbs of, 
with gen., 217. 

Confido, with abl., 245, II. — with dat., 
245, R. 1. 

Conjit, 183, 12, and 180, n. 

Conjugation, 149 — first, 155 and 156 — 
second, 157— third, 158 and 159 — 
fourth, 160— of deponent verbs, 161— 
periphrastic, 162 — general rules of, 
163— third, list of verbs in, 172— of 
irregular verbs, 178-1 82— of defective 
verbs, 183 — of impersonal ver})s, 184. 

Conjugations, how characterized, 149 — 
remarks on, 162. 

Conjunctions, 198 — classes of, 198— en- 
clitic, 198, R. 2 — copulative and dis- 
junctive, their use, 278 ; may connect 
diflferent moods, 278, r. 4 and 5; re- 
peated, 278, R. 7. 

Connection, of tenses, 258 — of words by 
conjunctions, 278— of clauses by do., 
278, R. 3. 

Connecting vowel, 150, 5 — omitted in 
2d root, 163, 2. 

Connectives, place of, 279, 3. 

Consonants, sounds of, 10 — 12. 

Consto, with abl., 245, II. 

Contentus, with abl., 244. 

Contracted syllables, quantity of, 283, 

Contractions in 2d root of verbs, 162, 7. 

Copula, 140. 

Crasis, 306, (5,) and 322. 

Crime, gen. of, after verbs, 217. 

Cujas, how declined, 139. 

Cujus, how declined, 137, r. 5. 

Cum annexed to abl., 133, r. 4, and 136, 

R. 1. 



314 



INDEX. 



Ohm, by what mood followed, 263. 5. 
Cundus, adjectives in, 129; 1. 
Cunque, its force, 191, R. 4. 



D. 

D final, quantity of, 299. 

Dactylic, metre, 310 and 303 — trimeter, 
312— dimeter, 312. 

Dactylico-iambic metre, 318, I. 

Dactylico-trochaic, heptameter, 318, IV. 
—tetrameter, 318, V. 

Dative, 37 — sing., 3d dec, 79 — plural, 
1st dec, 435 3d dec, 84 j 4th dec, 
89, 5 — used for gen., 211, r. 5 — after 
adjectives, 222 — different constructions 
instead of, 222, r. 4 and 6--after 
idem, 222, r. 7— after verbs, 223-227 
■ — ^after verbs compounded, with ad, 
ante, «fec., 224 ; with o.h, de, and ex, 
224,' R. 1 and 2; with satis, bene, and 
raale, 225— of the agent, 225, II. III. 
—of the possessor after est, 226— af- 
ter particles, 228. 

Datives, two, afier sum, Slc, 227. 

Declension, of nouns, 38-40 — rules of, 
40 — ^first, 41«-45 5 exc in, 43 — -second, 
46-54 5 exc. in, 52 — third, 55-86 3 exc. 
in, 68-85— fourth, 87-89 ; exc in, 89 3 
formed by contraction, 89 — fifth, 90 ; 
exc. in, 90 — of adjectives, first and 
second, 105-107 3 third, 108-111. 

Declensions, tabular view of, 39. 

Degrees of comparison, 123. 

Defective, nouns, 94-96 — adjectives, 115 
—verbs, 183. 

Deja, 183, 13, and 180, N. 

Dem, enclitic, 134, r. 6. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 1^4 — construc- 
tion of, 207 — in apposition with a 
clause, 207, r. 22, and 206, (13,)— used 
for reflexives, 208, (6,)— place of, 279, 
7. 

Denarius, its value, 327 — divisions of, 
327. ^ 

Denominatives, adj., 128 — verbs, 187, I. 

Dependence defined, 203, 8.. 

Dependent clauses, 203. 

Deponent verbs, 142, r. 4 — conjugated, 
161- — participles of, 162,17 — lists of, 
1st conj., 166 3 2d conj., 170 3 3d conj., 
1743 4th coni., 177— increment of, 
289, 3. 

Depriving, verbs of, with abl., 251. 

Derivation, of nouns, 100 — of adjectives, 
128— of verbs, 187— of adverbs, 192. 

Derivative words, quantity of, 284. 

Desiderative verbs, 187, II. 3, and 176, 
N.' — quantity of the u in, 284, E. 5. 

Veus declined, 53. 



Diaeresis, 306, 2 — mark of, 5, 

Diastole, 307, 2. 

Die, imperative, 162, 4. 

Dicolon, 319. 

Dido audiens, with dat., 222, R. 1. 

Difference, degree of, how expressed, 

256, R. 16. 
Dignt, with abl., 244. 
Dignor, with abl., 245. 
Dignus, indignus, &c, with abl., 244— 

with gen., 244, r. 2 — with relative and 

subjunctive, 264, 9. 
Diminutive, nouns, 100, 3 adjectives, 

104, and 128, 5— verbs, 187, II. 4. ^ 
Diphthongs, 4— sounds of, 9 — quantity 

of, 283, II. 
Diptotes, 94. 
Distich, 304. 

Distributive numbers, 119 and 120. 
Distrophon, 319. 

Do, increment of, 290, E., and 284, e. 4. 
Domus, declined, 89 — construction of, 

gen., 221, r. 3 3 ace, 237, r. 4 3 abl., 

255, R. 1. 
Donee, with subjunctive, 263, 4. 
Double letters, 3. 
Doubtful gender, 30. 
Due, imperative, 162, 4. 
Dum, with subjunctive, 263, 4 — and 

dummodo with do., 263, 2. 
Duo declined, 118. 
Dus, participle in, with dat., 225, III. — 

with ace, 234, r. 2 — its signification, 

274, 2, R. 8— used for a gerund, 275, 



E. 

E, sound of, 7 and 8 — nouns m, of 3d 
dec, gender of, 665 gen. of, 683 abl. 
of, 82 — adverbs in, 192^, II.. — and ex, 
how used, 195, r, 2 — increment in, 
3d dec, 287, 3 3 plur., 288 3 of verbs, 
290— final, quantity of, 295. 

.Eajo^^, (fee, 135, R. 3. 

Eceum, eccillum., Slc. 134, R. 2, and 
238, 2. 

Ecquis, how declined, 137, R. 3. 

Ecthlipsis, 305, 2. 

Edo and etas, abstracts in, 101. 

Edo (to eat) conjugated, 181. 

Ego, declined, 133. 

Ela, verbals in, 102, 3. 

Elegiac verse, 311, 3. 

Ellipsis, 323. See Omission. 

Em-phatic word, place of, in a sentence, 
279, 2, and 16. 

Enallage, 323, 3. 

Enclitics, in accentuation, 15— conjunc- 
tions, 198, R. 2. 



INDEX. 



315 



Ennehemimeris, 304, 5. 

Ensis, adjectives in, 128, 6. 

EOf conjugated, 182 — compounds of, 
182, R. (^— with supine in um, 276, II., 
R. 2. 

Epanadipl6sis,324, 18. 

Epanados, 324, 19. 

Epanalepsis, 324, 16. 

Epanaph5ra, 324, 13. 

Epanastrophe, 324, 17. 

Epanorthosis, 324, 32. 

Epenthesis, 322. 

Epistrophe, 324, 14. 

Epizeuxis, 324, 20. 

Epulor, with abl., 245, II. 

Equality, how denoted, 122. 

Er, nouns in, of 3d dec, gender of, 58 
and 60 3 gen. of, 70 and 71 — adjec- 
tives in, superlative of, 125 — annexed 
to pres. infin. pass., 162, 6. 

Erotesis, 321, 31. 

Es, nouns in, of 3d dec, increasing in 
gen., gender of, 58 and 61 3 gen. of, 
73 3 not increasing in gen-, gender of, 
62 3 gen. of, 73 — final, sound of, 8, e. 
2 3 quantity of, 300. 

Est, with dat. of a possessor, 216. 

Etum, nouns in, 100, 7. 

Etymology, 24-199. 

Ev and etu, in 2d and 3d roots of verbs, 
167. 

Euphemism, 324, 11. 

Eus, adjectives in, 128, 1 — Greek prop- 
er names in, 283, n. 2. 



F. 

Fac, 162, 4 — ^with subj. for imperat., 
267, R. 3. 

Facile ^\\\\h. superlatives, &c., 277, R.7. 

Facio, (and compounds,) passive of, 180 
— with abl., 250, R. 3 — with ut and 
the subj., 273, 1— with participle, 273, 
1. 

Fari, 183,6. 

Faxo 3.nd faxim, 162, 8, and 183, R. 1. 

Feet, 302— isochronous,' 302. 

Feminine nouns, of 3d dec, 625 exc. in^ 
62-65. 

Fer, imperative, 162, 4. 

Fero, conjugated, 179. 

Fido, how conjugated, 142,*^. 2 — ^with 
abl., 245, II.— with dat., 245, II. r. 1. 

Figures, of prosody, 305-307 — of or- 
thography and etymology, 322 — of 
syntax, 323— of rhetoric, 324. 

Filling, verbs of, with abl., 249 — ^with 
gen., 220, (3.) 

Fio, conjugated, 180 — quantity of its i, 
283, E. 1. 



Follow, in what sense used, 203, 9. 

Forem,fore., 151, 3. 

Frequentative verbs, 187, II. — f|uanlity 

of the i in, 284, e. 6. 
Fretus, with abl., 244. 
Fruor, with abl., 245. 
Fungor, with abl., 245. 
Future tense, 145, III. 
Future perfect tense, 145, VI. 



G. 

G, sound of, 10. 

Galliambus, 314, X. 

Gaudeo, how conjugated, 142, r. 2 — 
with abl., 245, II.— with ace, 245, II., 
r, 1. 

Gender, general rules of, 27-34 — natural 
and grammatical, 27 — masc. from sig- 
nification, 28 — fern, from do., 29^ 
common and doubtful, 30 — epicene, 
33 — neuter, 34— of 1st dec, 41 3 exC: 
in, 42— of 2d dec, 46 3 exc in, 49— 
of 3d dec, 58, 62, and m 3 exc in, 59 
-^7— of 4th dec, 873 exc in, 88— of 
5th dec, 90 3 exc. in, 90. 

Genitive, 37 — sing., 1st dec, exc in, 43 j 
of adjectives, 3d dec, 112 — plur., Igt 
dec, contracted, 43 3 2d dec, do., 53 5 
3d dec, 83 3 of adjectives, 3d dec, 
113 and 114 — after nouns, 211 — what 
relations it denotes, 211, r. 1 — sub- 
jective and objective, 211, r. 2 — of 
substantive pronouns, 211, r. 3 — pos- 
sessive adjective used for, 211, r. 4 
—dative used for, 211, r. 5 — -of 
character or quality, 211, r. 6 — noun 
limited by, omitted, 211, r. 7 3 want- 
ing, in the predicate after suvi,^\\, r, 
8 3 in other cases, 211, r. 8, (6,) — 
omitted,211,R.9 — howtranslated,21!, 
R. 12 — after partitives, 212 — after a 
neuter adjective or adj. pronoun, 212, 
R. 3 — after adverbs, 212, r. 4 — after 
adjectives, 213 3 different constructions 
instead of, 213, r. 4 — dicier dignus and 
indignus, 244, r. 2— after verbs, 214- 
220 — after sum^ and verbs of valuing, 
214— of crime, 217— after verbs of ad- 
monishing, 218 — after verbs denoting- 
an affection of the mind, 220 — of place, 
221— after particles, 221, II., III.— 
plur. depending on a gerund, 275, R. 
1, (3,) — place of, after neuter adjec- 
tives, 279, 10. 

Genitives, two, limltino;- the same noun, 
211, R. 10. 

Gerundives, how used, 275, II. 

Gerunds, 148, 2— by what cases followr 
ed, 274— .and gerundives, gen. of, 



316 



INDEX. 



275, R. 1 ; dat. of, 275, r. 2; ace. of, 

275, R. 3 ■ abl. of, 275, rA', infin. for, 

after adj., 275, r. 2, (4.) 
Glorior, with abl., 245, III. 
Glyconic verse, 316, IV. 
Golden ag-e, 329, 2. 
Government defined, 203, 7. 
Grammatical, subject. 201 5 cases of, 

201, IV., 3— predicate, 202— figures, 

322. 
Greek nouns, gender of, 34, r. — 1st 

dec, 44 — ^2d dec, 54^ — ace. of, in 3d 

dec, 80— declension of, in do., 86. 



H. 

H, its nature, 2 — in prosody, 283, 
Habeo, &c., with perfect participles, 274. 
2, r. 4. f . . 

Hellenism, 323, R. (2.) 
Hemistich, 304. 
Hendiadys,323, 2, (3.) 
Hepthemimeris, 304, 5. 
Heroic ceesura, 310, 4 and 5. 
Heteroclite nouns, 93. 
Heterosreneous nouns, 92. 
Heterosis, 323, 3, (2.) 
Hexameter verse, 310 — Priapean, 310, 

Hiatus, 279, 18. 

Hie, declined, 134 — and ?7/e distinguish- 
ed, 207, R. 23. 

Hipponactic, trimeter, 314,11. — tetrame- 
ter, 314, IV. 

Homo and homines omitted, 209, R. 2. 

Homoeopropheron, 324, 26. 

Horace, key to the odes of, 321. 

Horatian metres, 320. 

Humi. construction of, 221, r. 3. 

Hypallage. 323, 4, (3.) 

Hyperb^ton. 323, 4. 

Hyperbole, .324, 5. 

Hvpercatalectic, or hvpermeter verse. 
204. 

Hysteron proteron, 323, 4, (2.) 



I. 



/, sound of, 7 and 8 — nouns in, g-ender 
of, 66 ; gen. of, 68 — increment in, 3d 
dec, 287, 3 3 plur., 288 ; of verbs, 290 
— ^final, quantity of, 296. 

Iambic, metre, 314 and 303 — trimeter, 
314, I. •, catalectic. 314, V. — tetrame- 
ter, 314, Til. 5 catalectic, 314, IV.— 
dimeter, 314, VI. ; hvpermeter, 314, 
VII. ; acephalous. 314, VIII. ; cata- 
lectic, 314. IX. 

lambico-dactylic metre, 318, II. 



Iba7n, ibar, ibo, ibor, 162, 2, 

Icius, icus, His, and ius. adjectives in, 
128,2. ^ 

Icius or itius , verbal adjectives in, 129, 5. 

Ictus, 308, 3. 

Idem, declined, 134, r. 6 — how used, 
207, R. 27— with dative, 222, r. 7— 
how otherwise construed, 222, r. 7. 

Ides, 326. 

Idiotism, 325, 6. 

Idus, adjectives in, 129, 2. 

/e5, adverbs in, 192, II., 3. 

li, in gen., contracted, 52. 

lie, nouns in, 100, 9. 

His. adjectives in. 129, 4. 

llle, declined, 134— how used, 207, r. 24 
—with hie, 207, r. 23. 

niic, how declined, 134, r. 3. 

Im. in pres. subj., 162, 1 — adverbs in, 
192, I. and II. 

hnonium, nouns in, 100, 6— -and imonia, 
verbals in, 102,3. 

Imperative, 143, 3 — its time, 145, r. 3 — 
how used, 267. 

Imperfect tense, 145, II. 

Impersonal verbs, 184— list of in 2d conj., 
169 — their construction, 209, R. 3. 

In, government of, 235. (2.) 

Inceptive verbs, 187, 11., 2— list of, 173. 

Increment, of nouns, 286 j sing. num.. 
287 j plur. num, 288— of verbs, 289. ' 

Incrementum, 324, 22. 

Indeclinable, nouns, 94 — adjectives, 115. 
3. 

Indefinite, adjectives, 104 — pronouns, 
138— adverbs, 191, r. 4. 

Independent clauses, 203. 

Indicative mood, 143, 1 — its tenses, 145 
— how used, 259 — its tenses used one 
for another, 259. 

Indirect questions, subj. in, 265. 

Induo and exuo, construction of, in pass.. 
234; in act., 251, r. 2. 

Inferiority, how denoted, 122. 

Infinitive, 143, 4 — its tenses, 145, r. 4 
— as a logical subject, 201, IV.— how 
modified, 202, III. — with subject-nom., 
209, K. 5— for ge\^., 213, r. 4— its sub- 
ject, 239 — construction and meaning 
of its tenses, 268 — subject of a verb, 
269 — depending on a verb, 270 ; on 
an adjective or noun, 270, r. 1 — omit- 
ted, 270, R. 3 — without a subject, after 
what verbs used, 271 — =wilh a subject, 
after what verbs used, 272 and 273 — 
how translated, 272, r. 3 — used like a 
noun, 273, n.— its place, 279, 11. 

hint, 183, 14. and 180, n. 

Inflection. 25. 

Inquam, 183, 5 — its place in a sentence. 
279,6, ' 



INDEX. 



317 



Instrument, abl. of, 247. 
Infensive, pronouns, 135— verbs, 187, 
11.5. 

Inferdico, construction of, 251, R. 2. 

Interest. See Refert. 

Interjections, 199 — with nom., 209, R. 

13_withdat.,228,(3,)— withacc.,238, 

2 — with voc, 240 — O, Jieu, &c., not 

elided, 305. 
Intermediate clauses, subj. in, 266. 
Interrogative, adjectives, 104 and 121 — 

pronouns, 137; when indefinite, 137, N. 
Irms, adjectives in, 128, 1, 2, and 6. 
lo, verbals in, 102, 7. 
Ionic, metre, 317 and 303 — cx nuijore, 317, 

I.— a minor e, 317, II. 
Ipse, declined, 135 — how used, 207, R. 

28— used reflexively, 208, (4,)— with 

inter, 208, (5.) 
Iri, with supine in um, 276, II., R. 3. 
Iron age, 329, 4. 
Irony, 324, 4. 
Irregular, nouns, 92 — adjectives, 115 — 

verbs, 178-182. 
/.?, nouns in, gender of, 62 and 63; gen. 

of, 7i — final, quantity of, 301. 
Is, declined, 134 — how used, 207, R. 26. 
Iste, how declined, 134 — how used, 207, 

R. 25. 
hfic and illic declined, 134, R. 3. 
Itas, ia, itia, ities, imonia, itudo, itus, 

and tus, abstracts in, 101. 
Iter, declined, 57 — with ace. of place, 

237, R. 1 — increments of, 286, 2. 
Iter and er, adverbs in, 192, II. and IV. 
Itus, adverbs in, 192, I. and II. 
lum, verbals in, 102, 2. 

or itium, nouns in, 100, 5. 

lus, genitives in, how pronounced, 15 — 

in what adjectives found, 107— quan- 
tity of i in, 283, I., e. 4. 
Iv and itu, in 2d and 3d roots of 

verbs, 175. 



Jacto, with abl., 245, II. 

Juheo, construction of, 223, R.2, (2,) and 

273, 2. 
Jucrum, quantity of its compounds, 283, 

Jnpiter declined, 85. 
Jusjurandum declined, 91. 
Jiivat, &c., ace. after, 229, r. 7. 



K. 

K, when used, 2. 

Key to the odes of Horace, 321. 

27* 



Lf nouns in, gender of, Q)C) ; gen. of, 70 

— final, quantity of, 299. 
Lcetor, ^mideo, &.C., with abl., 245, II. 
Latin grammar, its divisions, 1. 
Leading clause, subject and verb, 203, 3. 
Lentns, adjectives in, 128, 4. 
Letters, 2 — division of, 3 — sounds of, 

7— numeral, 118,7, 
Licet, with subjunctive, 263, 2. 
Liquids, 3. 
Litotes, 324, 9. 

Loading, verbs of, with abl., 249. 
Logical, subject, 201— predicate, 202. 
Long syllable, 282, 2. 



M. 

M final, quantity of. 209, 2— elided, 305, 

2. 
Modo conjugated, 178, 3. 
Manner, adverbs of, 191, IH. — abl. of, 

247; with prep. 247, r. 3. 
Masculine, nouns of 3d dec, 68; exc. 

in, 59-61 — caesura, 310, n. 1. 
Materfamilias declined, 91. 
Means, abl. of, 247 — ace. of, with prep., 

247, R. 4. 
Measure or metre, a, 303. 
Memmi, 183, 3 — with gen. or ace. 216. 
Men or mentum, verbals in, 102, 4. 
Alet, enclitic, 133, r. 2. 
Metalepsis, 324, 6. 
Metaphor, 324, 1. 
Metathesis, 322. 
Metonymy, 324, 2. 
Metre, 303 — how divided, ^3 — different 

kinds of, 310-317. 
Metres, compound, 318— Horatian, 320. 
Mens, how declined, 139. 
MiliticB, construction of, 221, R. 2. 
Milk, its use, 118, 6. 
Mino and minor, in obsolete imperatives, 

162, 5. 
Misceo, with abl., 245, II. 
Misereor, miseresco, &.C., with gen., 215. 
Miseret, with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, 

R. 6. 

Modi, annexed to pronouns, 134, r. 5. 
Modified, subject, 201, III. ; itself modi- 
fied, 201, III., R. 6— predicate, 202, 

Modify or limit, in what sense used, 201 , 

II., R. 

Modb, with subjunctive, 263, 2. 

Money, mode of reckoning, 327. 

Monocolon, 319. 

Monoptotes, 94. 

Monosyllables, in c, quantity of, 295, K 



318 



INDEX. 



4 — in-o. do. 297, e. 1 — -their place, 
279,8. ' 

Moods, 143. 

Motion or tendenc}^, verbs of^ their con- 
struction, 225, 4, and 237, r. 3. 

Mutes, 3 — and liquids in prosody, 283, 
IV., E. 2. 

Mufo, with abl, 245, II. 



N. 

N^ nouns in, g^ender of, 66 ; gen. of, 70 
and 71— final, quantity of, 299. 

Names of persons, order of, 279, 9. 

Nascor, with abl., 246, r. 1. 

Natus, &c., with abl., 246. 

Ne, with subj.. 262— omitted after cave, 
262, R. 6— after metuo, &c., 262, r. 7— 
with subj., denoting a command, &c., 
260, R. 6— with imperat., 267, r. 1— 
followed by quidem, 279, 3. 

Negatives, two, their force, 277, R. 3-5. 

Nemo, for nidlus, 207, R. 31. 

Neoterism, 325, 3, 

Nequeo, how conjugated, 182, r. 3. 

Nequis, how declined, 138, 2. 

Neuter, nouns, 34^ of 3d dec, 66 ; exc. 
in, 66 and 67 — adjectives and adj. pro- 
nouns, with gen., 212, r. 3} ace. of, 
with another ace. after active verbs, 
231, K. 5 — verbs, with ace, 232 j with 
abl. of agent, 248, r. 2 — passive verbs, 
142, R. 2; participles of, 162, 18. 

Neuter, how declined, 107 — use of, with 
gen.,'212, R. 2, X. 1. 

Neutral passive verbs, 142, r. 3, 

Nitor, with abl., 245, II. 

Nolo conjugated, 178, 2. 

Nominative, 37— construction of, 209 and 
210 — after interjections, 209, R. 13 — 
plural; 3d dec, 83 j of adjectives, 3d 
dec, 113. See Subject-nominative and 
Predicate-nominative. 

Non,om\iied?Siernonmodo,&LC.,211,^.6. 

Nones. 326. 

Nostras, how declined, 139. 

Nostrum afler partitives, 212, R. 2, n. 2. 

Nouns, 26-103 — proper, common, ab- 
stract, and collective, 26 — gender of, 
27-o4^ — number of, 35 — cases of, 36 
and 37— declension of, 38-40— of 3d 
dec, mode of declining, 55 — com- 
pound, 91 — irregular, 92 — variable, 92 
— defective, in case, 94; in number, 95 
and 96 — differing in meaning in dif- 
ferent numbers, 97 — redundant, 99 — 
verbal, 102— derivation of, 100-102— 
composition of, 103 — hov/ modified, 
201, III., R. 1 — used as adjectives, 205, 

R.ii. 



NSf participials and participles in, con^ 
struction of, 213, r. 1 and 3. 

Number, of nouns, 35— of verbs, 146. 

Numbers, cardinal, 117 and 118 — ordi- 
nal, 119 and 120— distributive, 119 
and 120. 

Numerals— adjectives, 104; classes of, 
117 ; with gen., 212, r. 2— letters, 118, 
7 — adverbs, 119 — multiplicative, 121 
— proportional, 121— temporal, 121 — • 
interrogative, 121. 

Nunquis, how declined, 137, r. 3. 



O. 

O, sound of, 7 and 8 — ^nouns in, gender 
of, 58 and 59 ; gen. of, 69 — adverbs 
in, 192— increment in, 3d dec, 287, 3; 
plur., 288; of verbs, 290— final, quan- 
tity of, 297. 

O! si, with subjunctive, 263. 

Oblique cases, what, 37 — their place, 
279, 10 and 2. 

Obliviscor, with gen. or ace, 216. 

Object of an active verb, 229. 

Objective genitive, 211, r. 2 — dative 
used instead of, 211, r. 5. 

Octonarius. iambic, 314. III. 

Odi, 183, 1. 

O//?, for z7/i, 131^, R. 1. 

Omission, of ar in gen. plur., 1st dec, 
43— of i in gen. sing., 2d dec, 52 — of 
e in voc sing., 2d dec., 52 — of or in 
gen. plur., 2d dec, 53— of e, in gen. 
of nouns in ter and her, 71— of con- 
necting vowel, 150, b—-oi: v, &c, isj 
iss, and sis, in second root, 162, 7— of 
reduplication in compound verbs, 163, 
4, E. 1 — of pronoun in case of appo- 
sition, 204, R. 4— of a noun to which 
an adj. belongs, 205, r. 7, and 252, n. 
3— of the antecedent, 206, (3) and' (4) 
— of 7?ie?is, &c., used reilexively, 207, 
R. 38— of nominative, 209, r. 2 and 3 
—of verb, 209, r. 4, and "229, r. 3— 
of a noun limited by gen., 21 li, r 8— 
of gen., 211, R. 9-^of a partitive, 212, 
R. 1, N. 3 — of subject ace, 239 and 
269, R. 1 — of ace after an active verb, 
229, R. 4— of prep. 232, (2.) 235, R.5, 
241, R. 4, and 248, r. 3— of voc, 240 
— of quam, 256 — of participle in abl. 
absolute, 257, r. 7— of ut w^ith subj., 
262, R. 4— of ne after cave, 262, r. 6 
—-of non after non modb, &lq,., Til, R. 
6 — of conjunctions, 278, r. 6— of jf in 
composition, 307. 

Opus and usus. with gen. and ace, 211, 
R. 11— with abl., 243— how used, 243. 

R.2. 



INDEX. 



319 



Or J nouns in, gender of, 58 and 61 5 

fenitive of, 70 and 71 — verbals m, 
02, 1. 
Oratio obliqua, 266, 1 and 2, and 273, 3 

—tenses of, 266, 2, r. 4. 
Order, adverbs of, 191, I. 
Ordinal numbers, 119 and 120. 
Oriuni, verbals in, 102, 8. 
Ortlioepy, 6-23. 
Orthography, %-5. 
Os, nouns in, of 3d dec, gender of, 58 

and 61 j gen. of, 75 — final, sound of, 

8, E. 3; quantity of, 300. 
Osus, adjectives, in, 128, 4, 
Ovat, 183, 15. 
Oxymoron, 324, 28 



Parab5la, 324, 30. 

Paradigms, of nouns, 1st dec, 41 j 2d 
dec, 46 J 3d dec, 57 5 4th dec, 87 5 
5th dec, 90 — of adjectives, 1st and 2d 
dec, 105-107; 3d dec, 108-111— of 
verbs, sum, 153; 1st conj., 155 and 
156 ; 2d conj., 157; 3d conj., 158 and 
159 3 4ih conj., 160; deponent, 161 ; 
periphrastic conj., 162 ; defective, 183: 
impersonal, 184. 

Paragoge, 322. 

Paregmenon, 324, 24. 

Parelcon, 323, 2, (1.) 

Parenthesis, 323, 4, (6.) 

Paronomasia, 324, 25. 

Participial adjectives, 130, 

Participles, 148, l^n us, how declined, 
105 — in ns, do., Ill — of neuter verbs, 
162, 16' — of deponent verbs, 162, 17 — 
of neuter passive verbs, 162, 18 — in 
7-us, gen. plur. of, 162, 19 — compound- 
ed with in. 162, 21 — when they be- 
come adjectives, 162, 22 — how modi- 
fied, 201, III., R.3^agreement of, 205 3 
with predicate-nom., instead of sub- 
ject, 205, R. 5 — perfect, denoting ori- 
gin, with abl,, 246 — their government, 
274— their time, how determined, 274, 
2 — their various significations, 274, 2 
y and 3 — perfect, with habeo, &c., 274, 
2, R. 4 — for a verbal noun, 274, 2, r. 
5— for clauses, 274, 3, 

Particles, 190. 

Partitive adjectives, 104. 

Partitives, with plural verbs, 209, r. 11 
—gen. after, 212— omitted, 212, r. 2, 
N. 3 — ace or abl. after. 212, r. 2, n. 
4. 

Parts of speech, 24. 

Passive voice, 141 — with latter of two 
ace, 234— construction of, 234. 



Patrial, nouns, 100, 2 — adjectives, 10^1 — 
pronouns, 139. 

Patronymics, 100— quantity of their pe- 
nult, 291,4 and 5. 

Pentameter verse, 311. 

Pentaptotes, 94. 

Penthcmimoris, 304, 5. 

Penult, 13 — quantity of, 291 ; of proper 
names, 293. 

Perfect tense, 145, IV. 

Perfects of two syllables, quantity of, 
284, E. 1. 

Period defined, 280. 

Periphrasis, 323, 2, (4.) 

Periphrastic conjugations, 162, 14 and 15. 

Personal terminations of verbs, 147, 3. 

Personification, 324, 34. 

Persons of verbs, 147— with nominatives 
of different persons, 209, R. 12, (7,) 

Phalaecian verse, 315, III. 

Pherecratic verse, 316, V. 

Piget, with gen., 215 — with ace, 229, R. 
6. 

Place, adverbs of, 191. I.— gen. of, 221 
—ace of, 237 ; dat. for, 237, R. 3— 
where, abl. of, 254— whence, abl. of, 
255. 

Plenty or want, adj of, with abl., 250. 

Pleonasm, 323, 2. 

Pluperfect tense, 145, V. 

Plural nouns used for singulars, 98. 

Plus declined, 110. 

Poemtet, with gen., 215— with ace, 229, 
R. 6. 

Polyptoton, 324, 23. 

Polysyndeton, 323, 2, (2.) 

Position in prosody, 283, IV. 

Positive degree, 123. 

Possessive, adjectives, 104— pronouns, 
139; how used, 207, R. 36; when 
reflexive, omission of, 207, R. 36 ; 
used for subjective and possessive 
gen., 211, R. 3; mea, tua, &e, after 
refert and interest, 219, R. 1. 

Possum conjugated, 154, 6. 

Post, how pronounced, 8, e. 4. 

Potior, with abl., 245 — with gen., 220, 

PrcB in composition, its quantity, 283, 

II., K. 1. 

PrcBditus, with abl., 244. 

Predicate of a proposition, 200 and 202. 

Predicate-nominative, 210 — differing in 

number from the subject-nominative, 

210, R, 2— after what verbs, 210, r. 3 

and 4. 
Predicate-accusative, 210— dative, 210. 
Prepositional adjectives, 130. 
Prepositions, 195-197 — in composition, 
.196; force of, 197; change of, 103,5 

— inseparable, 197 — with an ace, 195 



320 



INDEX. 



and 235— with an abL, 195 and 241— 
with an ace. and abL, 195, and 235^, 
(2)-(5)— how modified, 201, III., r. 
6 — verbs compounded with, with da- 
tive, 224 j Mdth ace, 2335 with abl., 
242— omitted, 232, (2,) 235, r. 5, and 
241, R. 4— their place, 279, 10— quan- 
tity of di, se, and red, 285, r. 2 and 3. 

Present tense, 145, I. 

Preterit! ve verbs, 183, 1. 

Priapean verse, 310, II. 

Price, ablative of, 252 — expressed by 
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, 252. 

Primus, mediuSy &lq,., signification of, 
265, R. 17— their place, 279, 7. 

Priusquam, by what mood followed, 263, 
3. 

Pro, in composition, quantity of, 285, 

Procul, with abl., 241, r. 2. 

Prolepsis, 323, 1, (4.) 

Pronouns, 132-139— simple, 132 — neuter 

with gen., 212, r. 3, N. I. 
Proper nouns, 26. 
Propior ?ir\d proxwius, with^icc, 222, 

R. 5. 

Proposition, 200 — anal^'sis of, 281. 

Prosody, 1, and 282-321— figures of, 
305-307. 

Prosopopoeia, 324, 34. 

Prosthesis, 322. 

Prosum, 154, 5. 

Protasis and apodosis, 261. 

Pte, enchtic, 133, R. 2, and 139. 

Pudet, with gen.', 215 — with ace, 229, 
R. 6. 

Punctuation, 5. 

Punishment, words denoting, construc- 
tion of, 217, R. 3. 

Purpose denoted, by ut with subj., 262 
— by participles, 274, 2, r. 2, 6 and 7 
— by infin., 271 — b^^ gerund, 275, r. 
2 — by supine in um, 276, II. 



Quoeso, 183, 7. 

Quality, adverbs of, 191, III. 

Quam, with the superlative, 127— omit- 
ted after plus, minus, amplius, &c., 
256, R. 6 and 7. 

Quamvis, with the subj., 263, 2. 

Quantity, adjectives of, with gen., 212, 
R. 3, N. 1 J after sum and verbs of 
valuing, 214— adverbs of, with gen., 
212, R. 4. 

Quantity, marks of, 5 — in orthoepy, 13 — 
in prosod}^, 282, 1 — general rules of, 
283 — special rules of, 284 — of penults, 
291— of antepenults, 292— of penults 



of proper names, 293— of final sy]la= 

bles, 294. 
Quasi', with subj., 263, 2. 
Queo, how conjugated, 182, r. 3. 
Qui, declined, 136 — interrogative, 137 

— person of, 209; R. 6'— whh subjunc- 
tive, 264. 
Quicunque, how declined, 136, r. 2 — 

how used, 207, r. 29. 
Quidam, how declined, 133, 5 — how 

used, 207, r. 33. 
Quidem., place of, 279, 3. 
Quilibet, how declined, 133, 5 — how 

used, 207, r. 34. 
Quin, with subj., 262 and ib., r. 10. 
Quis, declined. 137 — and qui, for aliqiiis, 

&c., 137, R.'(c.) 
Quisnam, quinam, how declined, 137, 2. 
Quispiam, how declined, 138, 3= — how 

used, 207, r. 30. 
Quisquam, how declined, 138, 3 — how 

used, 207, R. 31. 
Quisque, how declined, 138, 3— how 

used, 207. r. 35 — its place, 279, 14. 
Qidsquis declined, 136, r. 2. 
Quivis, how declmed, 133, 5 — how used, 

207, R. 34. 
Quo and quommus, with subjunctive, 262 

and ib., r. 9. 
Quoad, with subj., 263, 4. 
Quod referring to a preceding statement. 

206,(14.) 
Quoque, place of, 279, 3. 



R. 

R final, quantity of, 299. 

Reaps e, 135, r. 3. 

Recordor and reminiscor, with gen. or 
ace, 216. 

Reckoning, Roman mode of, 326 and 
327. ^ 

Redundant, nouns, 99— adjectives, 116 
— verbs, 185. 

Reduplication, 163, R.— quantity of, 284. 
E. 2. 

Refert and interest, with gen., 214 and 
219 — with the adj. pronouns mea, &c., 
219, R, 1. 

Reflexive pronouns, 139, r. 2 — how 
used, 208— for demonstratives, 208, 
(6,)— omitted, 229, R. 3 — in oratio ob- 
liqua, 266, R. 3. 

Relative pronouns, 136. 

Relatives, agreement of, 206 — omitted, 
206, (5,) — in the case of the antece- 
dent, 206,(6,) — referring, to nouns of 
different genders, 206, (9 5) to a prop- 
osition, 206, (13,) — agreeing with a 
noun implied, 206, (11,) — adjectives, 



INDEX. 



321 



construction of, 206, (16,) — with sub- 
junctive, ^4 — their place, 279, 13. 

Responsives, case of, 204, r. 11. 

Respubllca declined, 91. 

Rhetoric, figiires of, 324. 

Rhythm, 308. 

Rimus and ritis, quantity of, 290, E. 
(I.) 4. 

Root of words inflected, 40, 10. 

Roots of verbs, 150, 1 — special, 150, 2 
— second and third, how formed, 
150, 3 — first, its derivatives, 151, 1 ; 
second, do., 151, 2^ third, do., 151, 3 
— second and third, formation of, 1st 
conj., 164-166 5 2d conj., 167-170; 3d 
conj., 171-174; 4th conj., 175-177— 
second and third irregular, 1st conj., 
165; 2d conj., 168; 4th conj., 176. 

Rus, how construed, in ace, 237, r. 4— - 
in abl., 254 and 255. 

Rus, participle in, its signification, 162, 
14, and 274, 2, r. 6. 



S. 

S, sound of, 11— preceded by a conso- 
nant, nouns in, gender of, 62 and 64; 
g-en. of, 77--final, elided, 305, 2. 

Salve, 183, 9. 

Sapphic verse, 315, II. 

Satago, with gen., 215, (2. ) 

Satis, bene, and male, vferbs compound- 
ed with, with dat., 225. 

Scanning-, 304, 6. 

Scazon, 314, II. 

Se with inter, 20S, (5.) 

Senarius, iambic, 314. 

Sentences, 203— analysis of, 281. 

Sentiments of another in dependent 
clauses, by what mood expressed, 
266, 3. 

Separating-, verbs of, with abl. 251. 

Sere, future infin. in, 162, 10. 

Sestertius, its value, 327 — how denoted, 
327 — mode of reckonii^g, 327. 

Short syllable, 282, 2. 

Silver a?e, 329, 3. 

Simile, 324, 30. 

Simple, subject, 201, II. — predicate, 
202, II.— sentences, 203. 

Simul, with abl., 241, R. 2. 

Siquis, how declined, 138, 2. 

Sis, for si vis, 183, R. 3. 

So and sim, ancient forms of tenses in, 
162, 8. 

Sodes, for ^7 audcs, 183, R. 3. 

Solecism, 32.5, 2. 

Soleo, how conjug-ated, 142, R. 2. 

Solu<s. how declined, 107 — with relative 
andsubj.,264, 10. 



Sotadic verse, 311. I. 

Space, ace. of, 23o. 

Spondaic, verse, 310 — tetrameter, 312. 

Stanza, 319. 

Sto, with abl., 245, II. 

Strophe, 319. 

Sub, in composition, force of, 122 — gov- 
ernment of, 235, (2.) 

Subject, of a verb, 140 — of a proposition, 
200 and 201; modified, 201, III. ; its 
place in a sentence, 279, 2. 

Subject-nominative, 209 — ^when omitted, 
209, R. 1 and 2— when wanting, 209, 
R. 3 — with infinitive, 209, r. 5-— two 
or more with plural verb, 209, R. 12 5 
with sing, verb, 209, R. 12. 

Subject-accusative, 239— when omitted, 
239. 

Subjective genitive, 211, r. 2 — posses- 
sive pronoun used for, 211, r. 3. 

Subjunctive, 143, 2 — ^its tenses, 145, r. 
2 — how used, 259— its tenses, various 
uses of, 259 — for imperative, 260, r. 
6— in conditional clauses, 261 — after 
particles, 262 and 263— after qui, 264 
— in indirect questions, 265 — in inter- 
mediate clauses, 266 — in oratio obK- 
qua, 266, 1 and 2 — after what verbs 
used, 273. 

Substantive pronouns, 132, 133 — as sub> 
ject-nom., omitted, 209, R. 1— dative 
of, redundant, 228, n. 

Subter, government of, 235, (4. ) 

Sui, declined, 133— use of, 208. 

Sultis, for si vultis, 183, R. 3. 

Sum, conjugated, 153 — compounds of, 
do., 154, 5 and 6 — with a gen. in ex- 
pressions denoting part, property, du- 
ty, &c., 211, R. 8, (3,) and 275, r. 1, 
(5,) — denoting degree of estimation, 
214r— with two datives, 227 — ^with abl. 
of situation, 245, III. — with abl. deno- 
ting in respect to, 250, r. 3. 

Super, government of, 235, (3.) 

Superiority, how denoted, 123. 

Superlative degree, 123— formation of, 
124— with quisque, 207, R. 35— with 
gen., 212, r. 2, and r. 4, n. 7. 

Supines, 148, 3 — few in number, 162, 11 
— in um, by what cases followed, 276 ; 
on what verbs they depend, 276, II. 5 
with eo, 276, II., R. 2 and 3— in u, 
with what adjectives used, 276, III. ; 
3.(ier fas, nefas, and opus, 276, III., r. 
2— of two syllables, quantity of, 284, 

E. 1. 

Suus, use of, 208 — referring to a word 
in the predicate, 208, (7,) — for liiijus, 
when a noun is omitted. 208, (7,) — 
denoting fit, (fee, 208. 

Syllabication, 17-23. 



322 



INDEX. 



Syllables, quantity of first and middle; 

2843 of penult, 291 5 of antepenult, 

2925 of final, 294. 
Syllepsis, 323, 1, (3.) 
SjTnploce, 324, 15. 
Syuseresis, 306. 
Synaloepha, 305. 
Synapheia, 307, 2. 
Synchysis, 323, 4, (4.) 
Syncope, 322. 
Synecd6che, 234, II., 323, 1, (5,) and 

324, 3. 
Sj^nesis, or synthesis, 323, 3, (4.) 
Synonymia, 324, 29. 
Synopsis of Horatian metres, 320. 
Syntax, 1, and 200-281. 
Systole, 307. 



T. 

T, sound of, 12 — ^nouns in, gender of, 66 3 
g-en. of, 78— final, quantity of, 299. 

Tcedet, with gen., 215— with ace, 229, 
R. 6. 

Talent, value of, 327. 

Tanquam, with subj., 263, 2. 

Tanti, quanti, &c., denoting price, 252. 

Tantum, with g-en. ulur. and plural verb, 
209, R. 11. 

Tautology, 325, 4. 

Te, enclitic, 133, r. 2. 

Tenses, 144 — connection of, 258 — simi- 
lar and dissimilar, 258, I. and II. — of 
indicative mood, used one for another, 
259 3 future for imperative, 259 3 used 
for subj. in apodosis, 259, R. 4 — of 
subj. mood, their use, 260, I., r. 1, 
and II., R. 1 — in protasis and apodo- 
sis, 261 — of infin. mood, use of, 268. 

Tenus, with gen., 221, HI.— with abl., 
241, R. 1— place of, 279, 10. 

Terminations, of words inflected, 40 — 
of nouns, 1st dec, 41 3 2d dec, 46 5 3d 
dec, 55- 4th dec, 873 5th dec, 90— 
personal, of verbs, 147, 3 — verbal, 150 
•—table of verbal, 152. 

Tetrameter, apriore. 31%— ^ posteriore, 
312. ' 

Tetraptotes, 94. 

Tetrastrophon, 319. 

TJiat, sign of what moods, 273. 

Thesis, 308. 

Time, adverbs of, 191, II.— ace of, 236 
— abl. of, 253 — expressed by id^ with 
a gen., 253, r. 3— mode of reckoning, 
3263 table of, 326, 6. 

Tmesis, 323, 4, (5.) 

To7' and trix, verbals in, 102, 6. 

Towns, names of, construction of 3 see 
Place. 



Tricolon, 319. 

Triemimeris, 304, 5. 

Trimeter catalectic, 312, VIL 

Triptotes, 94. 

Tristrophon, 319. 

Trochaic or feminine csesura, 310, N. 1. 

Trochaic, metre, 315 and 303 — tetrameter 

catalectici, 315 dimeter catalectic, 

315, IV. 
Tropes, 324. ^ 
Tu declined, 133. 
Ttis, adjectives in, 128, 7. 



U. 

Uf sound of, 7 and 8 — ^in gen. and voc. 
of Greek nouns, 54 — dative in, 89 — 
increment in, 3d dec, 287, 33 plur., 
288 3 of verbs, 290— final, quantity of, 
298. 

?7and itu,m 2d and 3d rootsof verbs, 167. 

Ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., 89, 5. 

Ullus, how declined, 107 — how used, 
207, R. 31. 

Ulum, verbals in, 102. 5. 

Um, adverbs in, 192, II. 

Undus, participles in, 162, 20. 

Unus, declined^ 107 — et alter, with verbs 
singular, 209, R. 12 — with relative and 
subj., 264, 10. 

Unusquisque, how declined, 133, 4. 

Ur, nouns in. gender of, 66 and 67 : gen. 
of, 70 and iW 

Ura, verbals in, 102, 7. 

Us, nouns in, of 3d dec, gender of, 66 
and 67: gen. of, 76 — verbals in, 102, 7 
— final quantity of, 301. 

Usque, with ace, 235, r. 3. 

Usus ; see Opus. 

Ut, with subjunctive, 262 — its correla- 
tives, 262, R. 1— omitted, 262, r. 4— 
after metuo, &.C., its meaning, 262, 
R. 7. 

Ut si, with subj., 263, 2. 

Uter, how declined, 107 — use of with 
gen., 212, R*2, N. 1. 

Utinam and tdi, with subj., 263. 

Utor, fruor, &c, with abl., 245 — -with 
ace, 245, I., R. 1. 



V changed to u, 163, 2. 

Valeo, with ace, 252, r. 4. 

Valuing, verbs of, with gen., 214. 

VapuloiU2, R.3. 

Variable nouns, 92. 

Velut 52V and veluti, with subj., 263, 2. 

Veneo, 142, r. 3, 



INDEX. 



323 



VerbalS; nouns, 102 3 with ace, 233, n. 
—adjectives, 129. 

Verbs, 140-189— subject of, 140— active, 
141 — neuter, 142 — neuter passive, 142, 
R. 2 — neutral passive, 142, r. 3— de- 
ponent, 142, R. 4 — transitive and in- 
transitive, 142, N. — principal parts of, 
151, 4r— neuter, participles of, 162, 16 
— inceptive, 173 — desiderative, 187, 
II., 3, and 176, n.— irregular, 178-182 
—defective, 183 — redundant, 185^ and 
186"— derivation of, 187 — composition 
of, 188 — changes of, in composition, 
189 — compounds from simples not in 
use, 189, N. 4— agreement of, 209 — 
omitted, 209, R. 4 — with qui, person 
of, 209, R. 6 — agreeing with predicate- 
nom., 209, R. 9 — with collective nouns, 
209, R. 11 — plural, after two or more 
nominatives, 209, r. 12} after a nom- 
inative, with cum and abl., 209, r. 12 ; 
after nominatives connected by aut, 
209, R. 12 — their place in a sentence, 
279, 2 : in a period, 280. 

Verses, 304 — combinations of, in poems, 
319. 

Versification, 30^: 

Versus, with ace, 235, R. 3 — place of, 
279, 10. 

Vescor, with abl., 245. 

VestrHjn, after partitives, 212, R. 2, n. 2. 

Vir, how declined, 48. 

Vis declined, 85. 

Vivo, with abl., 245, II. 

Vocative, 37— of proper names in ius, 
how pronounced, 14 5 how formed, 52 
— sing. 3d dec, 81— construction of, 
240. 



Voices, 141. 

Volo conjugated, 178. 

Vowel, before a mute and liquid, its 
quantity, 13, and 283, IV., e. 2— be- 
fore another vowel, quantity of, 283, 
1. 5 in Greek words, 283, e. 6— before 
two consonants, 283, IV. — ending first 
part of a compound, quantity of, 285, 
R. 4. 

Vowels, sounds of, 7 and 8. 



V^. 

Words, division of, 17-23— arrangement 

of, 279. 
Writers in different ages, 329. 



X. 

X, sound of, 12 — nouns in, gender of, 
62 and 655 gen. of, 78. 



Y. 

Yj sound of, 7, r. 2 — nouns in, gender 
of, 62 5 gen. of, 77— increment in, 3d 
dec, 287, 3— final, quantity of, 298. 

Ys final, quantity of, 301. 



Zeugma, 323, 1, (2.) 



THE END, 



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